superior poetical powers; he was one of the best modern writers of Latin verse, and likewise composed poems in Dutch. In spite of his wandering and checkered career, Grotius found time to write a great variety of works. The first was the Mare Liberum, in which he defended the freedom of the Dutch East India trade. His chief work, however, is that entitled De Jure Belli et Pacis, which has been translated into all the principal languages of Europe. It may be considered as the basis of international law, and has been much used as a text-book on the subject. Among his other works we may mention Annales et Historia de Rebus Belgicis (Amsterdam, 1657), written in a style that rivals Tacitus for concise and pointed power; Annotationes in Vetus Testamentum (Paris, 1644); De Satisfactione Christi; and De Veritate Religionis Christiana (Leyden, 1627), remarkable for its clear arrangement, vigorous logic, and eloquent style. Consult: Butler, Life of Grotius (London, 1826); De Vries, Huig de Groot en Maria van Reigersbergen (Amsterdam, 1827); Creuzer, Luther und Hugo Grotius (Heidelberg, 1846).

GRO'TON. A town in New London County, Conn., on the Thames River, opposite New London, and on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (Map: Connecticut, G 4). It contains the Bill Memorial Library, and has large ship-building yards. The government is administered by annual town meetings. Population, in 1890, 5539; in 1900, 5962.

Here occurred, on September 6, 1781, what has been called the 'Massacre of Fort Griswold.' One hundred and fifty Americans stubbornly resisted an attack of about 800 Tories under Benedict Arnold, who finally forced their way into the fort, and, maddened by the prolonged resistance, butchered the greater part of the survivors after their surrender. Of the 150, 85 were killed and 65 wounded, 35 mortally. A monument marks the site of the fort. Consult: History of New London County (Philadelphia, 1882), and an article, "The Massacre of Fort Griswold," in Magazine of American History, vol. vii. (New York, 1880).

GROTTAGLIE, grôt-tä'lyâ. A city in the Province of Lecce, Italy, 12 miles northeast of Taranto (Map: Italy, M 7). It has chalk and clay quarries, and markets grain, fruit, wine, oil, cotton, and cattle. Population of commune, in

1881, 9431; in 1901, 11,274.

GROTTE, grôt'tâ. A town in the Province of Girgenti, Sicily, 13 miles northeast of the city of Girgenti. Sulphur-mining is the principal industry (Map: Italy, H 10). Population of commune, in 1881, 8808; in 1901, 11,039.

GROTTGER, grôt'ger, ARTHUR VON (183767). A Polish painter, born at Ottyniowice (Galicia). He studied in his own country as a boy, and then went to Vienna, where he was a pupil of Karl Blaas, and afterwards to Munich, where he studied under Kaulbach. While in Vienna he began to make his reputation as an illustrator. About 1865 he went to Italy, and a year afterwards to Paris. There he executed his cycle of twelve cartoons, "In the Valley of Tears," exhibited at the Exposition of 1867, and afterwards bought by the Emperor of Austria. They show his skill in composition. His "Warsaw" (seven scenes, 1861), "Poland" (nine scenes, 1863),

"Lithuania" (six scenes, 1863), present a history of Poland profoundly patriotic and profoundly sad. Such works as these, together with the "Meeting of Sobieski and Leopold I." (1859), have made him a popular painter in Poland.

GROUCHY, groo'she', EMMANUEL, Marquis de (1766-1847). A French marshal. He was born at Vallette in the Department of Seineet-Oise, September 5, 1766. He entered the French Army at the age of fourteen, and by 1789 had risen to the rank of captain in the royal bodyguards. In spite of birth and training, he threw in his lot with the republicans, and left the royal guard for a line regiment. In 1792 he was a colonel of chasseurs and camp marshal. His services in Savoy and in La Vendée (1793) were rewarded with the rank of brigadier-general (1794); but the decree of the Convention against the nobles forced his retirement for a time. He was reinstated in command in 1795, and took part, as second in command to Hoche, in the Irish expedition (1796), and entered Bantry Bay. In 1798 he fought under Joubert in Italy, and later distinguished himself under Moreau in Piedmont. His public protest against the coup d'état of the Eighteenth Brumaire did not prevent Napoleon from utilizing his services, and he took part in the campaign on the Danube, distinguishing himself at Hohenlinden (1800). After the Peace of Lunéville Grouchy was made inspector-general of cavalry and employed on various important missions, becoming one of Napoleon's most trusted followers. He was prominent in all the Emperor's campaigns. During the Russian expedition he commanded a cavalry division at Borodino, and in the retreat led the 'sacred squadron' of officers forming the Imperial bodyguard. Nevertheless, he was refused the command of an army corps in 1813, but at the close of the year accepted a lesser post, and after fighting bravely against odds, was severely wounded at the battle of Craonne (1814). The Bourbon restoration resulted in Grouchy's loss of rank and banishment, and on Napoleon's return from Elba Grouchy was one of the first to offer his services. He suppressed the Royalists under the Duke of Angoulême, and received a marshal's He received command baton as his reward. of a division of the French Army sent against With a force of Wellington and Blücher. 35,000 men and 100 guns, he was ordered to operate against Blücher and the Prussians after their defeat at Ligny. These orders he obeyed his generals, he remained before Wavre, assailtoo literally, for, in spite of the entreaties of ing Blücher's rear-guard of 15,000 men, while the rest of the Prussian army marched to the field of Waterloo. The absence of Grouchy's army resulted in Napoleon's defeat, and caused the Emperor to exclaim: "I would have gained the day but for his stupidity." Grouchy did all he could to repair his fatal error, but the cause of the Empire was lost, and he resigned his command under the walls of Paris. Under the Second Restoration he was proscribed, and passed five years in exile in the United States, residing in Philadelphia. Both parties in France reviled him, and an effort was made to condemn him to death. At last, in 1819, he was restored to his titles and estates, though not given the rank of marshal. He lived in retirement near Caen, constantly defending his conduct in 1815 in pamphlets and

letters. After the July Revolution of 1830 he was recognized as a marshal of France, and resumed his seat in the Chamber of Peers. He was forced, from time to time, to defend himself against the attacks of his former generals of staff, and died May 29, 1847, before he was fully rehabilitated. His most important writings appear in the Fragments historiques relatifs à la campagne et à la bataille de Waterloo (Paris, 1830). Consult, also: Mémoires du maréchal Marquis de Grouchy, edited by his grandson (Paris, 1873-74); the histories of the campaign of 1815 by Jomini (Paris, 1841), Charras (Brussels, 1857), Quinet (Paris, 1862), Houssaye (1899). GROUND (AS. grund, ground, earth, foundation). In painting, the material with which the canvas or panel is covered preparatory to painting, also called priming. Canvases are known as absorbent or non-absorbent, single-primed or double-primed, and are thus prepared to meet the taste of the artist, both as regards their character and their color. The Italians of the Renaissance used white grounds in paintings on wood, but with the increased use of canvas they preferred a dull red. The Dutch and Flemings chose light tints, varying from white to gray. This is also the present practice. The preparation of grounds was formerly considered of great importance. Of contemporary painters BurneJones is said to have often prepared his grounds, and then set them aside for years to dry and get thoroughly set. Most modern painters, however, attach less importance to priming. A good uniform ground of light tint is generally acceptable, as the covering of the pigments is now, in all competent work, of so great a body and thickness that the ground counts for little or nothing in the final processes of a painting. For the ground in engraving and etching, consult the articles on these subjects.

GROUND-ALMOND. See CHUFA.

GROUND-ANNUAL. In the law of Scotland, an annual rent or annuity paid by the owner of land to a creditor, or to the vendor of the land. Thus, when a vendor sells his land, and instead of taking a lump sum for the price, prefers a sum by way of a perpetual annuity or rent, he conveys the land in fee to the disponee or purchaser, subject to this ground-annual, which is a burden on the lands forever after. The vendor or creditor is called the ground-annualer, and if the ground-annual is not paid he is entitled as a remedy to poind the ground, i.e. seize all the goods, whether of the owner or his tenants, which are found on the lands, and pay himself, or he may sue the debtor. But he cannot, as a ground-landlord can do in England, poind the goods of the debtor's tenants to a greater extent than the current term's rent or arrears due by them. The ground-annual is the Scotch equivalent of the rent charge reserved by the vendor of land in England, and of the fee-farm rent of American law, while poinding is the common-law remedy of distress (q.v.).

GROUND-BEETLE. A beetle of one of the largest and most important families of beetles, Carabidæ, so called because they live on or beneath the surface of the soil. About 12.000 species have been described in this family, and 1100 of them occur in North America. Most of them are predaceous and carnivorous, and both adults and larvæ are swift runners. Their colors are dull

metallic blue, green, brown, or black, and they
are often ornamented by longitudinal ridges and
rows of punctures. Both adults and larvæ feed
mainly upon insects, slugs and snails, but also
eat dead animal flesh. Some forms eat young
growing corn, young seeds, and ripe strawberries.
The family is generally useful to agriculture,
for its various members feed on such destructive
forms as the potato-beetle and its larvæ, the
June beetle and cutworm. Certain species even
ascend trees in search of canker-worms and
plum-curculios. Seashore forms feed on the beech-
flea (Gammarus). A number of blind species
inhabit caves both in Europe and America (see
CAVE ANIMALS), and other small blind forms
dwell under large stones. Not one of this last
class has ever been found above ground, so that
each colony may have been confined for genera-
tions under its respective stone. Certain other
species live under stones at the seashore, which
are covered at each high tide, and come out
Still others occur
only when the tide is low.
in the nests of termites; these so strongly re-
mistake the one for the other, and they prob-
semble the termite queens that one may easily
ably prey upon the termites. Some forms pro-
duce a loud noise by raising the tip of the
abdomen and rubbing it against a file on the
wing-cases. These are the squeakers' that are
sold in Covent Garden market, London. Some
forms are aquatic, and others live in wet sands
of rivers and pools. Certain adult and larval
forms lie awaiting their prey in holes in the
ground, from which they bound out when the
victim is sufficiently near. The overpoweringly
fetid odor of a small species (Nomius pygmæus)
is described by Barrows (Proc. Assoc. Econ. Ent.,
Washington, 1897). In the United States the
ground-beetles can only be confused with the
darkling beetles (Tenebrionida) of California;
the ground-beetles have five-jointed tarsi, while
the darklings have only four joints in the hind
tarsi. The 'searcher' (Calosoma scrutator) is
one of our commonest ground-beetles. It is vio-
let, blue, and green, with red margins on the wing-
covers, and sometimes ascends trees in search
of caterpillars. Another species (Lebia grandis),
which closely resembles the bombardiers and is
frequently an enemy of the potato-beetle, and
the genus Harpalus, are other common ground-
beetles. The last named are black, and feed to a
considerable extent on cutworms.

GROUND-CHERRY. See PHYSALIS.
GROUND-CUCKOO. See COUCAL.

GROUND-DOVE, or GROUND-PIGEON. A pigeon of terrestrial habits. Several genera have short and rounded wings, with much inferior power of flight to pigeons in general: their legs are longer, and their feet rather adapted for walking than for grasping. They are little arboreal in their habits, but live mostly on the ground. Many of them run very quickly. They have not in general much brilliancy of plumage, but among them are the beautiful bronzewings (q.v.) of Australia. In the Southern United States, Bermuda, and the West Indies the name 'ground-dove' is especially applied to the diminutive little dove Columbigallina passerina, a plaincolored but handsome bird, which is common in those regions. These doves are less than seven inches long, are almost always on the ground (though they roost at night in trees), and are

common in the roads, where they show little fear of man. They are generally seen in pairs, and seem greatly attached to each other.

GROUNDHOG. (1) The name in the Southern United States of the marmot (Arctomys monar), better named 'woodchuck' (q.v.). (2) In South Africa, the aardvark (q.v.).

GROUND-HORNBILL.

A hornbill of the African subfamily Bucoracinæ, characterized by hollow casques, and by habits and an organization suited to terrestrial life. Two species are known, a northern (Bucorax, or Bucorus, Abyssinicus), and a southern, the 'bromvogel' of the Boers (Bucorax Cafer). Both are large birds, the Abyssinian being 3% feet long, and of stout build, with a casque open in front. The southern species has the casque closed. Both are wholly black, except the wing-quills, which are white. They go about in small flocks, and are fearless, but when too much alarmed fly into trees for safety. They eat anything they can find-fruits, insects, crayfish, small reptiles, mice, and snakes. They are noted for their antipathy to snakes and their cunning in overcoming them. When a snake is discovered, they approach it, holding their wings stretched out and flapping the reptile with them until it is induced to seize a feather. Then all the birds attack it and peck it to death. If the snake advances, the bird threatened folds its wings as a shield in front of it, and by maneuvres and assaults soon overcomes even the death-adder. They place their nests in cavities or broken trees. The natives of South Africa hold this bird in superstitious abhorrence, its alleged foretelling of storms being the least of its sins in their sight. See HORNBILL. GROUND-IVY, Nepeta Glechoma. A plant of the natural order Labiatæ, a native of Europe, widely introduced in America, which grows in the dry soils of waste places, plantations, hedges, etc. It has a creeping stem, kidney-shaped crenate leaves, and axillary blue flowers in threes. The plant is stimulant, aromatic, and is used in pectoral complaints. A tea prepared from the leaves is in great repute among the poor in many places. The leaves were formerly used in England for clarifying and flavoring ale, which was then called gill-ale, from gill-over-the-ground, an old name of this plant; but this use has been discontinued since the introduction of hops.

GROUND-LAUREL. See ARBUTUS, TRAIL

ING.

GROUNDLING. A small loach (Leuciscus tania) of English rivers and ponds, keeping

close to the bottom. See LOACH.

GROUNDNUT. A term variously employed, to denote the seed of the peanut (Arachis hypogaa) and the tubers of certain umbelliferous plants, especially Apios tuberosa, also called

earthnut. See PEANUT.

GROUND-PINE. See CLUB-MOSs.
GROUND-PINK. See PHLOX.

GROUND-RAT, or GROUND-PIG. A burrowing, rat-like rodent (Aulacodus swinderianus), of South and West Africa. It is two feet long, and has very harsh, bristly hair, flattened, grooved, and brown in color. It is a near relative of the spiny rodents of tropical America, such as the coypu, hutia, and others of the family Octodontidæ.

GROUND-RENT. In England, the rent reserved on land leased for a long term of years for improvement. The additional value imparted to the land by the erection of buildings and other venient form of investment. In England and in improvements constitutes this a safe and consome parts of the United States the remedy of distress (q.v.) exists in favor of the ground-landlord. Unless otherwise provided in the lease, the improvements constitute fixtures and become the property of the owner of the soil.

The practice of hiring ground for building purposes exists in the United States, and the law is similar to that of England on this point. But in most of the States there is no distress of the tenant's chattels in case of failure to pay the rent. The landlord will simply have an action for the amount of rent due, or he may dispossess the tenant and resume possession of the premises himself.

In Pennsylvania the term ground-rent is employed for rent charge or fee-farm rent to describe the rent reserved to the grantor of an estate in fee simple.

GROUND-SEA. A West Indian name for a

roller. The sea rises in long swells or billows, usually from a northerly direction, which inbreak there with great force. crease in height as the shore is approached, and The ground-sea and with no indications of a previous or coming may occur in a calm and otherwise smooth sea, gale. It has been suggested that they are due to 'northers' blowing farther to the north. the Gulf of California and other parts of the world, particularly in the tropics, similar phenomena occur.

In

GROUND-SLOTH. See the article GANO

DONTA.

GROUND-SNAKE. Any of the small, wormlike serpents of the North American genus Carphophiops, which are the most lowly of Colubrida, Central and South America. They are harmless and represent the typical forest burrowers of little snakes, about the size of a slate-pencil, and with no apparent neck, and are likely to be found under stones, or beneath or inside of way under the bark of trees, an operation in decayed logs. Frequently they also force their which they exert considerable muscular effort. The species most commonly seen, and to be found in all the South Central States, is Carphophiops amanus, which is glossy, opalescent, chestnutbrown above, and bright salmon color beneath. Another species (Carphophiops vermis), the ground-worm' of the lower Mississippi Valley, is large and purplish-brown in color above, while below it is broadly flesh-colored.

GROUND-SQUIRREL. A group of squirrels, differing from the true squirrels in the possession of cheek-pouches, in having a more slender body and shorter legs, and in living chiefly on the ground, and seldom climbing trees to any considerable height. They are of small size, are longitudinally striped on the back and sides, are extremely active and restless, and emit a peculiar chipping sound. The striped spermophile or 'gopher' (q.v.), so troublesome in the Northwest, and the chipmunk (q.v.) are familiar American examples. See Plate of GOPHERS, ETC.

GROUNDSWELL. A long smooth swell, frequently occurring along a coast where the ocean bed is not far below the surface for a long