He

HALLSTRÖM, hal'strēm, IVAR (1826-1901). A Swedish composer, born in Stockholm. was educated for the legal profession, and was private librarian to the Crown Prince, who became Oscar II. of Sweden. In 1861 he was appointed the successor of Lindblad as director of

the National School of Music at Stockholm. He is essentially a national composer, and all his writing is marked by the characteristics of Scandinavian music in general, and the Swedish folk-music in particular. He composed several operas, the most successful of which was Den Bergtagna, or the Mountain King. Other works include the operas, Hertig Magnus; Den förtrol lade katten, or The Enchanted Cat; Neaga, or Nyaga (libretto by Carmen Sylva); Idyl for soli, chorus, and orchestra, which, in 1860, won the prize of the Musical Union of Stockholm.

HALLUCINATION (from Lat, hallucinatio, alucinatio, hallucination, from alucinari, to wander in mind). In the states of dreaming, hypnosis, and insanity, we find a derangement, temporary or permanent, of the normal train of ideas (see ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS) and their attendant affective processes; in hallucination and illusion (q.v.) we have an abnormal condition of single ideas or representations. (See IDEA.) An illusion may be defined here, provisionally, as a distorted perception; an hallucination is "an image of memory which differs in intensity from the normal" (Wundt), a centrally aroused idea which by its strength and vividness simulates the reality of an external object, and is, therefore, accepted as real by the perceiving subject. Hallucinations are characteristic of certain forms of insanity; the religious visionary holds intercourse with the Virgin Mary; the melancholiac hears insulting or threatening voices (delirium of persecution). Sane persons, especially those engaged in intellectual pursuits, are also liable to hallucinations after a period of concentrated mental work. The commonest forms of hallucination are, perhaps, the 'hypnagogic,' visions or voices seen or heard in the drowsy interval preceding sleep. Hallucinations are ordinarily auditory or visual, though they may also arise within the spheres of taste, smell, and touch.

Hallucinations may be set up by hyperæmia of

the brain membranes and cortex; by the action of drugs (morphine, ether, etc.); and by disturbances of brain nutrition, resulting in anæmia. The common factor in all these cases is a deposition, in the cerebral cortex, of products of decomposition, which at first enhance the irritability of the area affected, and presently serve them selves as stimuli to brain action.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Wundt, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie, vol. iii. (Leipzig, 1903); Mueller, Ueber die phantastischen Gesichtserscheinungen (Coblenz, 1826)); Brière de Boismont, Les hallucinations (Paris, 1845); Sully, Illusions (New York, 1881); Parish, Hallucinations and Illusions (New York, 1897).

HALLUF. See WART-HOG.

HALLUIN, å'lwan'. A town in the Department of Nord, France, on the Belgian frontier. It has extensive manufacturing establishments of cotton, linen, etc. Population, in 1901, 12,069; of commune, 16,600.

HALLUX VALGUS (Lat., wry toe). The technical name of a deformity of the great toe, which is generally caused by wearing too small a shoe, the toe, for lack of room, being forced out of its normal position so that it sometimes overlaps the other toes. This malformation, which is most common among women, not unfrequently results in osseous changes which may necessitate amputation of the toe.

HALLWICH, häl'viK, HERMANN (1838-). An Austrian politician and historian, born at Teplitz, and educated at Prague. From 1871 to 1897 Hallwich was a member of the Austrian House of Deputies, allied with the German Left, and prominent as a speaker on questions dealing with commerce and tariff. As an historian he is

best known as an ardent defender of Wallenstein.

He wrote: Wallensteins Ende. Ungedruckte Bricfe und Akten (1879); Heinrich Matthias Thurn als Zeuge im Prozess Wallenstein (1883); and Ge stalten aus Wallensteins Lager (1885).

HALM, FRIEDRICH, the pseudonym of MÜNCHBELLINGHAUSEN, E. F. J., Baron von (q.v.).

A German

HALM, hälm, KARL (1809-82). philologist, born at Munich in 1809. From 1839 he taught at Speier and Hadamar; in 1849 he became rector of the newly founded Maximiliansgymnasium at Munich, and in 1856 professor in the university there and director of the royal library. His principal works are critical editions of Cicero (1845-56), Quintilian (1868-69), and Cornelius Nepos (1871); Cicero's Orations with commentary (1845-48); and Select Orations of Cicero (1854-66); in the Teubner series, Esop's Fables (1852), Florus (1854), and Tacitus (4th ed. 1891). His shorter treatises comprise: Lectiones Stobenses (Speier, 1841-42); the Catalogue of the Fathers of the Latin Church (1865); and his rich Catalogue of the Munich Library, vol. i. (1865).

HALMA, ȧl'mȧ', NICOLAS (1755-1828). A French mathematician, born at Sedan, and eduand was principal of the college at Sedan (1791cated there and in Paris. He took holy orders, 93). Removed from this position by the suppression of the colleges, he went to Paris and was in quick succession engineer, surgeon, professor at the Prytanée and at the Military School of Fontainebleau, librarian and instructor of the Empress, and librarian of the Department of Bridges and Highways. Then he undertook, at the instance of Delambre, the translation of Ptolemæus on astronomy, together with the commentaries of Theon on the first two books, and other material (1813-16). But the success and merits of his work were small, and appointments as assistant curator of the Bibliothèque Sainte Geneviève and as canon of Notre Dame were much more remunerative. His further works include translations and criticisms of Greek mathematicians and chronologists, and text-books of geography, besides many miscellaneous writings.

HALMAHERA, häl'må-hãʼrå. An island of the Moluccas. See GILOLO.

HALMOTE, or HALIMOTE (from hall + mote, AS. gemot, assembly). An ancient English court, held by the lord of a manor for the purpose of administering the laws and customs of the manor. It was composed of the freeholders of the manor, and came later to be known as the Court Baron or manorial court. See COURT BARON.

HALMSTAD, hälm'städ. A town in Sweden, and capital of Halland Län, situated at the mouth of the Nissa on the east shore of the Cattegat, about 76 miles south-southeast of Göteborg (Map: Sweden, E 8). The town possesses a castle, now the residence of the Governor; a

church dating from 1462, and a high school. It is an important railroad centre, and has regular steamship connection with most of the Swedish coast towns as well as with Copenhagen and Lübeck. It is the chief export town for a large part of Southern Sweden. The chief manufactures are cloth, beer, and machinery. The town exports lumber, fish (the river abounding in salmon), oats, butter, and woolen goods; the chief imports are food-stuffs, fertilizers, petroleum, and jute. Pop., in 1901, 15,400; in 1905, 17,183. Halmstad received municipal privileges in 1307, and has been the scene of many important events in the history of Sweden, among them the defeat of the Danes by Charles XI. in 1676.

HALO (Lat. halos, from Gk. 2ws, halo, disk, threshing-floor, from dλeiv, halein, to grind). The general name given to a class of optical phenomena, described more specifically as GLORY, CORONA, ANTHELIA, PARHELIA, MOCK SUNS, SUNDOGS, PARASELENA, MOCK MOONS, etc. When the light of the sun or moon or bright star shines through a delicate cloud, or layer of fog or mist, a variety of optical phenomena are produced which may be classified as (a) circular rings around the sun or moon or star as a centre; (b) horizontal rings around the zenith as a centre; (c) partial arcs around the sun or the zenith; (d) vertical columns of light either through the sun or moon, or through points around the horizon symmetrically placed with reference to the sun; (e) elliptical rings around the central luminary. If the observer is so located that his shadow is projected upon a cloud, a bank of fog, or a meadow covered with drops of dew, he may see similar circles of light around his shadow or his anti-solar point, which circles have been described under ANTHELIA. The circles around the sun really occur much more frequently than those around the moon, but are less frequently observed, owing to the brightness of the sun; they can, however, easily be seen by viewing the reflection of the sky in the surface of still water or an unsilvered glass plate.

Halo is the general term by which we designate a variety of optical phenomena whose study is a branch of physical optics. The circular rings of class (a), when they are quite near the sun, namely, within fifteen degrees, and, in fact, usually within five degrees, are the result of the interference of waves of light that have passed around the minute globules of water, or sometimes of dust, in the hazy atmosphere. This process was called diffraction by Sir Isaac Newton, who showed that in the rear of every small object there is a bright spot instead of a shadow, and surrounding this bright spot a series of concentric rings or bands of brilliant colors.

If

one looks at the sun through a mass of small particles or fibres of rather uniform size, as those of wool, a similar series of concentric rings will be seen, the angular diameter of which increases as the diameters of the fibres diminish; on this principle Dr. Thomas Young based the construction of his eriometer for the determination of the diameter of small particles and the fibres of textile materials. The largest rings that have been seen about the sun are those known as Bishop's rings, observed after the eruption of Krakatoa. radius, and must have resulted from the presThese are about ten, twelve, or fifteen degrees in ence of a very delicate layer of the finest imag probably did not exceed 0.0002, or one five-thouinable dust or aqueous globules whose diameters sandth of an inch. On the other hand, particles having a radius of one degree, which would, that have a diameter of 0.0013 may produce rings therefore, very closely encircle the sun or moon, whose radius is only one-quarter of one degree. All these circles are known as 'glories.' the lower clouds, the diffraction phenomena beFor large globules of water, such as compose complicated phenomena of reflection and refraccome inappreciable, and are replaced by more tion. clouds formed of small globules of water the In the higher alto-stratus and alto-cumulus range of diameters is usually rather large, and a series of overlapping circles is seen when the sun or moon is behind them. In the highest cirrus clouds the particles of ice form more delicate circles. For particles of a much smaller size than those that usually occur in clouds, the phenomena of diffraction are replaced by the colors of thin plates. Brilliant illustrations of these clouds occurred in the green, blue, and red suns seen when the sun was examined through the clouds of vapor that were thrown off by the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. The study of this subject led to the experiments by Kiessling, and more especially by Dr. Carl Barus, whose publications on cloudy condensation form the steppingstones to our present limited knowledge of the growth of minute water-globules from a diameter somewhat less than the tenth of the length of the sodium-wave up to a diameter equal to that wave-length itself. Consult Bulletin No. 12, United States Weather Bureau, 1895.

In the small circles or glories referred to, the red circles are outermost, and the blue ones within; the term 'halo' is applied by meteorologists more especially to circles of larger radius formed by reflection and refraction within the drops of water, such as the rainbow and the halos of twenty-two and twenty-five degrees radius. In rainbows or halos formed by one reflection the red is innermost, namely, on the side toward the sun; and the blue is outermost, or away from the sun. Circles formed by two reflections have the red outside and the blue inside.

The complex and beautiful halo phenomena that are seen in the winter time result from the reflection and refraction of light by innumerable crystals of ice or simple snowflakes, which produce, in general, a hazy appearance in the air. When the sky is cloudless and of a pale blue near the zenith, these crystals of ice, settling down very slowly through the still air, may be sufficiently numerous to reflect enough sunlight to produce gorgeous effects. The simplest ice crystal is a regular hexagonal prism whose ends are either planes perpendicular to the axis or

more commonly hexagonal pyramids. When a ray of light within a prism strikes an inner surface at an angle of incidence of about 80.5° it is totally reflected. When a beam of light passes through the two sides of a prism whose angle is 60°, in such a way as to suffer the minimum deviation, the latter will amount to about 21° 50. Bearing these principles in mind, as also the fact that in an ordinary cloud the prisms have every possible position, we see that the general result will be that crystals that are near the position of minimum deviation will conspire to refract the light in the same direction; some of the others will send the light in any direction, so the general result will be a bright circle of light surrounding the sun as a centre; its angular radius from the sun will be about 21° 50', or the so-called halo of 22°, which has a dark interior, an inner reddish edge, and a bright exterior.

In still air the slender prisms of ice are likely to be suspended more nearly vertically. Therefore, their surfaces reflect a little sunlight as from a vertical mirror to the eye. When the observer is in the midst of a cloud or fog of such prisms, he sees a reflection of the sunlight forming a band of white light around the horizon at about half the apparent angular attitude of the sun. This is called the parhelic circle. When other combinations of reflections from snow crystals occur so as to double or treble the brightness of particular spots in this parhelic circle, these spots are called mock suns, sun-dogs, or parhelia. vertical arc may be produced by the reflections from the horizontal surfaces of snowflakes, and this arc may extend for a very considerable distance above and below the sun.

Α

The most brilliant attendant of a halo is the tangential arc, which is sometimes seen touching the halo of 46° at its summit; it can only be seen when the sun's altitude is between 12° and 30°, and is due to the reflection of the sunlight through ice needles whose refracting edges are horizontal. The geometrical study of halos was most thoroughly worked out by Bravais, in his memoir of 1847 in the Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique, vol. xviii. (Paris); it is also quite fully presented by Mascart, Traité de l'optique (Paris, 1896). The complete application of the theory of interference to the explanation of the phenomena of the supernumerary rings that accompany halos, and especially rainbows, was given by Dr. Thomas Young in 1804, but has more recently been presented in both elementary and analytical methods by Dr. J. Pernter, of Vienna. The idea that cloudy particles are not solid small spheres of water, but hollow vessels like a soap-bubble, was abundantly disproved by Clausius, but still finds occasional mention in popular text-books. However, the arguments for and against this vesicular theory (consult Kober, in Poggendorff's Annalen, Berlin, 1871) show that it can have no standing in science. An exhaustive work on optical meteorology was in course of preparation in 1903 by Prof. J. Pernter of Vienna.

HALOANDER, hä'lö-än'der, GREGORIUS (1501-31). A German jurist whose family name was Meltzer. He was born at Zwickau, and was educated in Leipzig. He published, at Nuremberg, under the protection and with the help of Wilibald Pirkheimer: the Pandecta (1529); Institutiones (1529); Codex Justinianeus (1530);

and, in Greek with a Latin version, Novella Constitutiones (1531). He also edited Epictetus's Enchiridion (1529). Consult: Schmidt, Symbola ad Vitam Gregorii Haloandri (Leipzig, 1866), and Flechseg, Gregor Haloander (Zwickau, 1872).

HAL'OGENS (from Gk. as, hals, salt + nesthai, to be born). The name given to the four -yεvns, -genēs, producing, from yizveola, gignon-metallic elements, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The term was originally used by Berzelius, on account of the ease with which these elements form salts. The halogens combine directly with many of the other elements, much heat being evolved in the process. With hydrogen, they form the well-known hydrofluorie, hydrochloric, hydrobromic, and hydriodic acids, respectively. The halogens exhibit an unmistakable gradation of physical properties. fluorine is a colorless gas; chlorine is a yellowishis a dark-red volatile liquid; iodine is a lusgreen gas easily condensed to a liquid; bromine trous grayish-violet solid. See FLUORINE; BROMINE; CHLORINE; IODINE.

Thus,

hals, salt + pilos, philos, loving). HALOPHILOUS PLANT (from Gk. άaç, See HALO

PHYTE.

Sometimes

erough to be of ecological importance. The vegetation of the oceans and salt seas and lakes, as the greater part of the halophytic vegetation of well as that along their marshy shores, represents the world; however, there are great interior halophytic areas in arid climates, where seas or salt springs or small areas of salty soil disclose salt lakes have formerly existed. a halophytic vegetation. While a great many species have, perhaps, become perfectly adjusted to soils or waters rich in salt, it is, nevertheless, true that these conditions are unfavorable for the development of the great majority of plants; and experiments have shown that many halophytes may grow as well, if not better, in soils or waters

with a low salt content. This is not true, however, in the case of such extreme halophytes as the marine algæ.

EFFECTS OF SALT ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE. Almost all plants can take up limited quantities of ordinary salt without injury, although most plants probably do not need it in their normal life processes. All but natural halophytes and a few xerophytes soon perish if large quantities of salt are present in the soil. Probably the injurious effects of salt are due to the increased difficulty of osmotic absorption by the root, and to the inhibiting action of salt on the plant's normal life processes. Structures and conditions that have been experimentally shown to result from growth in salt solutions are reduction in leaf surface, increase of leaf thickness (due to richer development of palisades and waterstorage cells), reduction of intercellular spaces. All of these are well-known xerophytic characters, so that halophytes, with the exception of submerged marine plants, are now regarded as a class of xerophytes whether the soil in which they grow be dry or wet. The structures noted, as well as others, doubtless serve to reduce transpiration, and it may be supposed that this is an advantage, because of the lessened osmotic absorption. See XEROPHYTES.

HALOPHYTES.

2

Cross-section of leaf of Sonneratia acida: 1, in ordinary soil condition; 2, when grown in salty soil, showing the great thickening of the cuticle in the latter.

Halophytes belong to a great number of families, some of which, as the Chenopodiaceæ, Frankeniaceæ, Plumbaginaceæ, are particularly rich in halophytic members. One of the most interesting features of halophytes is the wide distribution of their species. It is easy to see how coastal forms should be similar over wide areas, but why the same forms should also occur in many continental interiors is not so apparent. Perhaps the former interior seas had marine connections; in this case the interior halophytes form the best-known group of relict plants (q.v.). It must be remembered, however, that migrations are easier than has been generally supposed, and that given a congenial habitat in a congenial climate, a species or genus characteristic of such places is pretty likely to appear sooner or later. The various halophytic formations and societies are treated under BEACH PLANTS; BENTHOS; DESERT VEGETATION; DUNE VEGETATION; MANGROVE SWAMP; PLANKTON; and SWAMP.

HAL'PINE, or HALPIN, CHARLES GRAHAM (1829-68). An American soldier and poet, born in Oldcastle, County Meath, Ireland, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. After a short journalistic experience in Dublin, he came to America in 1851. For a few months he was the associate editor of the Boston Post; served as the Washington correspondent of the New York Times, and after short connections with various metropolitan papers, was associate editor of the

New York Times until 1857, when he became editor-in-chief of the New York Leader. At the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted in the Sixty-ninth Regiment, New York Volunteers. He served as assistant adjutant-general on General Hunter's staff and under General Halleck, accompanied the former on his Shenandoah expedition in 1864, resigned from the service soon afterwards on account of failing health, and was brevetted a brigadier-general of volunteers. His experiences and observations as a soldier found humorous expression in the popular poems and stories written over the pen-name of Miles O'Reilly. He became editor of the New York Citizen in 1864, and strongly advocated civilservice reform; was elected register of New York County in 1867, and died in the following year from his continued literary exertions. His bestknown writings, apart from fugitive poems, are: Lyrics by the Letter H (1854); Life and Adventures, Songs, Services, and Speeches of Private Miles O'Reilly (1864); and Baked Meats of the Funeral: A Collection of Essays, Poems, Speeches and Banquets of Private Miles O'Reilly (1866). His complete Poetical Works appeared in 1869.

HALS, häls, FRANS (c.1584-1666). A Dutch portrait and genre painter, the greatest, next to Rembrandt. He was born at Antwerp, not at Mechlin, as is often stated, probably in 1584. He went to Haarlem before 1600, and studied there under Karel van Mander (q.v.). He led a careless and jovial life, but was held in high esteem by his fellow townsmen. Like his brother, Dirk, he was an honorary member of the chamber of rhetoric; he belonged to the civic guard, and was head of the painters' guild, and of an important school of painting. He was twice married. He was usually in debt; and in 1664 the municipality of Haarlem allowed him a yearly pension of two hundred florins, which he enjoyed until his death on September 7, 1666.

The artistic development of Hals may best be studied in his large doelenstukken (portrait groups of the city guard) in the Museum of Haarlem. The earliest of these, the "Banquet of the Officers of Arquebusiers of Saint George" (1616), is in his first manner. There are traces of the old Haarlem School, in particular of Van Mander, but Hals is already an independent master. His grouping is freer than that of the old school; his color, though still brown in tone, is more luminous, and applied in a broader manner; and his characterization far superior. His second manner (1627-39) is represented by three doelenstukken in the Haarlem Gallery: the "Banquet of Officers of the Arquebusiers of Saint George and Saint Andrew" (1627); "Officers of Saint Andrew" (1633), the most serious and finest of the groups; and the "Officers and Sergeants of Saint George" (1639), nineteen figures, among which is that of the artist himself. To these may be added a similar piece, the so-called "Shooting Gallery" (1637), in the city hall of Amsterdam. During this period his pictures are characterized by a light gray tone, greater breadth of execution, and greater seriousness of character. Another portrait group of the Haarlem Museum, the "Governors of the Elizabeth Hospital" (1641), in the peculiar treatment of light and in its rich golden hue, shows the influence of Rembrandt-an influence, however, which was only temporary and experimental. Before 1635 his color began to grow deeper, and

a darker gray tone pervaded his pictures. His treatment continued to grow broader, attaining a breadth perhaps never achieved by another master. This last manner is represented in the Haarlem Museum by two fine portrait groups: "Governors of the Hospital for Old Men," and the "Lady Governors of the Hospital for Old Women," both of 1665.

Frans Hals was one of the greatest portrait painters of all times. All details are subordinate to the character and expression of the face; the colors, however bright, serve to emphasize the carnation of the face. No painter has exceeded him in expression. He left over one hundred and sixty works, most numerous in Dutch and German galleries, and in those of Paris, Saint Petersburg, and New York.

The most interesting example of the portraits of the first period is that of the "Artist and His Wife in a Park" (1624), at Amsterdam; others are those of an unknown "Nobleman and His Wife," at Cassel; of "Jacob Olycan and His Wife" (1625), in The Hague; and of a "Young Married Couple" (1627), in Berlin. The Louvre possesses three fine examples of his second manner: "Nicholas Berensteyn and His Wife" (1629); the "Berensteyn Family," an admirable group composed of father, mother, six children, and two nurses; and a "Girl of the Berensteyn Family," the most charming of Hals's feminine portraits. Other prominent examples are the "Nurse with Child," in the Berlin Museum; the life-size figure of William van Heythuysen, in the Liechtenstein Collection, Vienna, his masterpiece, according to Bode; another of the same subject in the Museum of Brussels.

The portraits of his last period show no decline. Among the best are those of an old man and his wife, in private possession, Paris; of Descartes, in the Louvre; the "Young Man in a Soft Hat," at Gotha; and three well-known portraits of unknown men in the Hermitage at Saint Petersburg. The Metropolitan Museum of New York has portraits of an unknown man, and of Hals's wife, and one of two gentlemen, attributed

to him.

Hals is the father of Dutch genre painting. In his genre pieces he found an amusement and freedom not possible in ordered portraits. They are painted in a broader style with more humor. Most of them date from his early period. Among the best are: the "Jolly Trio" (1616), in private possession in the United States, of which there is a replica by Dirk Hals in the Berlin Museum; the "Herring Vender" (1516), in the Baring Collection, London; "Junker Ramp and His Mistress," in private possession, Haarlem. To the same period belong a number of pictures of sing. ing boys and flute-players in the galleries of Brussels, Berlin, Königsberg, Schwerin, etc.; and of jovial drinkers at Amsterdam, Cassel, etc. Especially fine examples of this genre are the "Fool Playing a Lute," at Amsterdam, and "La bohémienne," in the Louvre. The original of the famous "Hille Bobbe," an old woman with an owl upon her shoulder and a tankard of wine in her hand, is in the Berlin Museum. There are replicas at Dresden and in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, probably by Frans Hals the younger. The latter museum also possesses a genre piece of a "Smoker."

Hals was the head of a large school, and exercised a great influence upon Dutch painting.

Among his pupils were Verspronk, the portrait painter; his brother, Dirk Hals, and Adriaen Van Ostade, genre painters; the greatest genre painters of Holland-Metsu, Ter Borch, and Steen (q.v.)-were under his influence. Five of his sons were painters. Of these the most important was FRANS HALS THE YOUNGER (1620c.1669), who copied his father's pictures. amples of his independent works are in the Arenberg Gallery and in the Royal Palace at Brussels, in the Schwerin Gallery, and in the museums of Berlin and Königsberg.

Ex

Consult: Van der Willigen, Les artistes de Haarlem (Haarlem, 1870); Vosmaer and Unger, Frans Hals Galerie (Amsterdam, 1873); Knackfuss, Frans Hals (Leipzig, 1897); Davies, Franz Hals (London, 1905). The chief authority on Hals is W. Bode; see his Studien zur Geschichte der holländischen Malerei (Brunswick, 1883). HÄLSCHNER, helsh'ner, HUGO PHILIPP EGMONT (1817-89). A German criminalist. He was born at Hirschberg, Silesia, was educated at Breslau and Berlin, and in 1847 was made professor of law at Bonn, where he lectured on the history and nature of criminal law. In 1868 he was made a life member of the Prussian Upper House. His principal publications are: System des preussischen Strafrechts (2 parts, 1858 and 1868); Das Recht Deutschlands im Streit mit Dänemark (3d ed. 1863), an important work in which the disputes between Germany and Denmark are treated from the standpoint of the legal historian.

HAL'STEAD, MURAT (1829-). An American journalist, born in Ross Township, Butler Co., Ohio. He was educated at Farmers' College,

near Cincinnati, became a member of the staff of the Cincinnati Commercial in 1853, and in 1865 its chief owner. This journal was subsequently consolidated with the Gazette of Cincinnati, as the Commercial-Gazette, of which he became the editor-in-chief. He was afterwards editor of the Brooklyn Standard-Union, and then became a special newspaper correspondent and magazine writer, in which capacity he visited the War. His books include a Life of William McPhilippine Islands during the Spanish-American Kinley, a Life of Admiral Dewey, and The Galveston Tragedy.

HAL'STED, BYRON DAVID (1852-). An He American botanist, born at Venice, N. Y. was educated at the Michigan Agricultural College, and, after two years' teaching in that institution, at Harvard. In 1879 he became editor of the American Agriculturist. He was elected professor of botany at Iowa Agricultural College (1885), and at Rutgers College (1889). Halsted gained most fame by his knowledge of weeds and fungi injurious to agriculture. He wrote: The Vegetable Garden (1882); Farm Conveniences (1883); and Household Conveniences (1883).

HALSTED, GEORGE BRUCE (1853-). An American mathematician, born at Newark, N. J. He graduated at Princeton in 1875, and studied at Johns Hopkins and in Berlin. He was instructor in Princeton until 1884, and professor of mathematics in the University of Texas in 18841903, when he took the corresponding chair in Kenyon College. Halsted wrote on mathematics, philosophy, and formal logic for the scientific magazines, and published: Mensuration (1881); Elements of Geometry (1885); Elementary Syn