permanent observance of the Supper is practically derived from Paul confines the authority for this item in the narrative wholly to the Apostle. In regard to the worth of his testimony, it is evident, on the one hand, that the earliness of his account, in comparison with the Gospel records, gives it a relative value beyond theirs. This is confirmed by the almost necessary assumption that, even if the peculiar way in which he introduces his account (verse 23a) was not intended by him to refer his knowledge of the facts to divine revelation, it was intended to place it on a high plane of authority. On the other hand, the fact that Paul is writing to the disorderly church at Corinth, and has in mind at this particular point in his Epistle their shameful conduct of the Lord's Supper, might lead Paul to read this purpose into the narrative of the event by way of emphasizing to his readers the continual authority of the Supper. It would be manifestly unwarranted, however, to hold that such action on Paul's part disposed of the question, since the portrayal of the Supper by Mark and Matthew as, in the mind of Jesus, a covenant between Himself and His disciples, implies an intended permanence in the observance of the event, which practically involves the command, "This do in remembrance of Me," whether it was actually uttered or not. It would seem, therefore, that whatever difficulties lie in the way of a complete solution of the problem, the following essential facts are clear: That Christ, in a final supper with His disciples, symbolically referred the bread and wine of the meal to His approaching death as a sacrificial act on His part, in their partaking of which symbols they entered into a covenant realization of its benefits and recognition of its obligations.

(c) The Resurrection.-While none of the Gospels record the act itself, they all record the fact of the Resurrection, though in narratives which differ widely from each other. [The concluding verses of the last chapter of Mark (xvi. 9-20) are recognized as a later substitute for the ending of the Gospel, and John xxi. as a probable supplement to the original Gospel.] The most significant divergence is regarding the scene of the chief appearances of Jesus, Matthew (xxviii. 16-20) and, by implication, Mark (xvi. 7) placing it in Galilee, Luke (xxiv.) and John (xx.) in Jerusalem. The minor divergences relate to individualities in the narration of events, involved in which are some notable peculiarities, such as Matthew's reference to the accompanying natural and angelic events (xxviii. 2-4), and the gathering of the eleven at a mountain in Galilee (verses 16-20); Luke's story of the two disciples on the way to Emmaus (xxiv. 13-15), and his account of Jesus' final blessing of the disciple band and His ascension from them at Bethany (verses 50-53); John's record of the curing of Thomas's doubt (xx. 24-29). Further involved in these individualities of narration are some striking difficulties of detail, such as the statement by Luke (xxiv. 9) that the women told their experience at the sepulchre to the eleven and to all the rest, while Mark says that they said nothing to any man (xvi. 8); John's statement that Jesus forbade Mary to touch Him (xx. 17), while Matthew recounts that the women, including Mary, were allowed to clasp His feet (xxviii. 9). Apart from these divergences, however, there manifest themselves the follow

ing whole and partial agreements: (1) As to the visit of the women to the sepulchre: All the Synoptists unite in saying that they made their visit early in the morning, finding the tomb empty and returning to the city with the fact impressed upon their minds (Mark xvi. 2-4, 6; Matt. xxviii. 2, 3, 5, 6; Luke xxiv. 4-6a). John confines his account to the experience of Mary Magdalene, but states also on her part an early-morning visit, implying the finding of an empty tomb and the announcement of the fact to Peter and John, who themselves go to the sepulchre and confirm the story by their personal observation and then return to their homes (xx. 1-10; cf. Luke xxiv. 12). (2) As to the angelic appearances: All the Synoptists unite in relating a vision of angels at the tomb (Mark and Matthew one angel, Luke two), and a message from the angels, through the women, to the disciples, to the effect that Jesus was risen (Mark xvi. 5, 6; Matt. xxviii. 2, 3, 5, 6; Luke xxiv. 4-6a), Mark and Matthew adding an announcement that Jesus would meet with His disciples in Galilee (Mark xvi. 7; Matt. xxviii. 7); Luke, merely a reminder of what Jesus had said to His disciples concerning His death and resurrection while He had been with them in Galilee (xxiv. 6-8). (3) As to the appearances of Jesus Himself: (a) Matthew and John unite in relating an appearance to the women after leaving the tomb (Matthew to the group, John to Mary Magdalene). On this occasion a message is given them by Jesus Himself to His disciples (Matthew, that He would precede them into Galilee; John, that He would ascend into heaven) (Matt. xxviii. 10; John xx. 17). (b) Luke and John unite in relating an appearance to certain of His disciples during the evening of this same day, in which Jesus convinced their unbelief by displaying to them the marks of His Crucifixion; Luke adding the items of the disciples' fear at the appearance and the material proof given by Jesus of His bodily existence, together with His instruction of them in the Scriptures' reference to Himself and His word; John, the items of the appearance being accomplished in spite of closed doors, of Jesus' impartation to them of the Holy Spirit, and His recognition of them as His representatives in the world (Luke xxiv. 36-49; John xx. 19-23). In our study of the Gospel narratives, however, account must be taken of the definite statement made by Paul in his First Epistle to the Corinthians (xv. 4-8), where he gives a list of six appearances of Jesus-first to Peter, then to the twelve, then to a company of more than five hundred disciples, after that to James, then to all the Apostles, adding finally the appearance to himself. This statement, like that regarding the Lord's Supper, has priority over the earliest Gospel account, and is placed by the Apostle on a high plane of reliability of source. In view of these facts, it is significant that its only divergence from the Gospel accounts is by way of supplementation to what they narrate. From all this, then, it would seem quite possible for Jesus to have appeared to certain individuals among His disciples in Jerusalem and its neighborhood within eight days after His Resurrection: later to have appeared to larger numbers of His followers in Galilee: and finally, before His ascension, to have appeared to the Apostolic circle in Jerusalem, leading them out to Bethany, where He was parted from them.

The only question would be the time taken for the disciples' journey from Jerusalem to Galilee and return, and this is not a serious one. It would further seem quite possible for the general sequence of events, as given by all the four Gospols and by Paul, to have taken place, the order being, in brief, the visit of the women and Mary Magdalene to the Sepulchre (Mark, Matthew, Luke, John); the vision of angels to the women (Mark, Matthew, Luke); the appearance of Jesus to the women, with their report to the disciples (Matthew and Luke); Mary Magdalene's report of the empty tomb to Peter and John, and their investigation (John; see also Luke for Peter's investigation); the appearance of Jesus to Mary Magdalene (John); the appearance to Peter (Paul, Luke), to the two disciples on the way to Emmaus (Luke), to the eleven in Jerusalem (Luke, John), to the same a week later (John); the appearances in Galilee-to the eleven at the mountain (Matthew [possibly identical or synchronous with the appearance to the five hundred (Paul), before which may have been the appearance of the seven at the Sea of Galilee, recorded in the supplemental chapter of John]); then to James-most likely in Jerusalem (Paul); finally in the same city to the eleven, whom He led out to Bethany, where He ascended from them (Luke; cf. Acts i. 2, 3). As a general result, the problem presents itself, not as one of mutually exclusive records, since, admitting all the minor contradictions, the agreement among the narratives as to the essential facts is clear. The problem reduces itself in reality to the question whether the source of these narratives is more likely to have been the actual fact of the resurrection, evidenced to the disciples; or a self-persuasion of it on their part, through a desire to believe it to have occurred, though it had not. The decision between these alternatives will be determined by the inference which must inevitably be drawn from the facts (1) that the disciples did not reach their belief by any slow process of reasoning, but by an almost immediate conviction of the event, in spite of their deep despondency over Calvary; and (2) that it has been on the proclamation of this event, as the basal ground of its faith in Jesus, that Christianity has reached its stupendous results in the

world.

B. THE PROBLEM OF THE CHRONOLOGY. This concerns itself chiefly with the question as to the length of Jesus' ministry; and this question turns largely upon the character of the feast mentioned in John v. 1. If this is held to be a Passover, the duration of His active work is extended to at least three years; if it is not so held, the limit is reduced to perhaps two years. For full discussion of this and minor points, see NEW TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGY. See also the articles on the individual Gospels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to the usual New Testament Introductions and Lives of Christ, which are useful for the general subject, consult the following more important recent books: (1) For the Synoptic Problem (a) as helps in investigation: Rushbrooke, Synopticon (London, 1880-81); Hawkins, Hora Synoptice (Oxford, 1899) Veit. Die synoptischen Parallelen (Gütersloh. 1897) Huck, Sunopse der drei ersten Evangelien (Freiburg, 1898); Heinicke. Synonse der drei ersten kanonischen Evangelien (Giessen, 1898). (b) For general reference and presenta

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tion of specific views: Wright, The Composition of the Four Gospels (London, 1890); Badham, The Formation of the Gospels (London, 1892); Westcott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels (New York, 1896); Wernle, Die synoptische Frage (Freiburg, 1899); Weizsäcker, Untersuchungen über die evangelische Geschichte (Leip zig, 1901). (2) For the Johannine Problem: Sanday, Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel (London, 1872); Luthardt, Der Johanneische Ursprung des vierten Evangeliums (Nuremberg, 1874; Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1885); Beyschlag, Zur Johanneischen Frage (Gotha, 1876); Lightfoot, Essays on Supernatural Religion (London, 1889); Thoma, Genesis des Johannis-Evangelium (Berlin, 1882); O. Holtzmann, Johann-Evangelium (Darmstadt, 1887); Ewald, Das Hauptproblem der Evangelienfrage (Leipzig, 1890); Delff, Das Vierte Evangelium (Husum, 1890); Watkins, Modern Criticism in Relation to the Fourth Gospel (London, 1890); Schürer, “Ueber den gegenwärtigen Stand der Johanneischen Frage," in Vorträge der theologischen Konferenz zu Giessen (Giessen, 1889); Wendt, Das Johannis-Evangelium (Eng. trans., London, 1902). (3) For the Nativity: Resch, Das Kindheits-Evangelium nach Lucas und Matthäus (Leipzig, 1897); Ramsay, Was Christ Born at Bethlehem? (New York, 1898); Conrady, Die Quelle der kanonischen Kindheitsgeschichte Jesu's (Göttingen, 1900). (4) For the Lord's Supper: Harnack, Brod und Wasser (Leipzig, 1892); Zahn, Brod und Wein (Leipzig, 1892); Jülicher, "Zur Geschichte des Abendmahls," in Theologische Abhandlungen (Freiburg, 1892); Spitta, Zur Geschichte des Urchristentums, vol. i. (Göttingen, 1893); Gardner, The Origin of the Lord's Supper (London, 1893); Schaefer, Das Herrenmahl (Gütersloh, 1897). (5) For the Resurrection: Milligan, The Resurrection of Our Lord (London, 1884); Loofs, Die Auferstehungsberichte (Leipzig, 1898).

GOSPEL.

In the liturgical sense, the short selection from the Gospels which is read or sung in the mass and in the Anglican communion service between the epistle and the creed. It formed a regular part of the service as early as the second century. For two hundred years the reading was continuous, taken up each day where the previous one had stopped; but when the calendar was fully developed under Pope Damasus the selections were chosen to correspond with it. The liturgical gospels were not originally included in the same book with the rest of the service, which allowed special ceremonial veneration to be paid to the book containing them. Thus in the fifth century it was brought in solemn procession, and laid upon the altar at the beginning of the service; a relic of this practice is the present custom of having the deacon deposit it for a while upon the altar immediately before singing the gospel. The bearing of lights in connection with it was known to Saint Jerome, and signifies the illumination of the world by the Gospel message. The reading is prefaced by the response Gloria tibi, Domine ("Glory be to thee, O Lord!"), and followed by Laus tibi, Christe ("Praise be to thee. O Christ!"), after which the book is kissed by the celebrant. All present have always stood during the reading with uncovered heads, even kings laying aside their crowns. The recitation of the last Gospel' (commonly the first fourteen verses of John, un

less commemoration is made of a superseded office by the use of its Gospel) is of later introduction. In the thirteenth century the priest recited it on the way to the sacristy, as the bishop does today on the way from the altar to his throne. Pius V. in his revised missal gave it its present place. See MASS; EPISTLE.

GOSPELER. A name applied to the minister in the Church of England who reads the Gospel in the communion service, analogous to the deacon in the mass. (See EPISTOLER.) It was also used as a nickname for Wiclif and his followers when they devoted themselves to the circulation of the Scriptures in the vernacular.

GOSPORT. A fortified seaport and markettown in Hampshire, England, on Portsmouth Harbor (the English Channel), directly opposite Portsmouth (Map: England, E 6). It is the chief manufacturing seat and depot of stores for the equipment of the British Navy. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in Government establishments, which comprise powder - magazines, fusee and rocket laboratories, and the Royal Clarence Victualling Yard, with its various important departments. Among the industries are the manufacturing of anchors and chain cables, yacht-building, and sail-making. The town is inclosed within ramparts with an outer circle of forts, which merge in the continuous barrier that

surrounds Portsea and Portsmouth. On the southeast is Haslar Hospital, the celebrated national institution for disabled sailors. Bishop Henry de Blois is said to have bestowed the name of God's port-hence Gosport-when he found safety here during a storm in 1158. The large

suburban district of Alverstoke is included in the

census of Gosport. Population, in 1891, 25,400; in 1901, 28,900.

GOSS, Sir JOHN (1800-80). An English musical composer. He was born in Fareham, Hampshire, and at ten years of age was a chorister in the Chapel Royal, while at twenty-seven he was professor of harmony at the Royal Academy of Music. By that time he had written a number of part-songs, sacred and secular, but it was not until he became organist of Saint Paul's Cathedral (1838) that he began to be famous as a composer. Besides writing a number of original anthems, he edited chants and cathedral services by ancient and modern composers, wrote the beautiful If We Believe that Jesus Died for the funeral of the Duke of Wellington and a Te Deum and anthem for the Thanksgiving service on the restoration to health of the Prince of Wales

(1872). That year he retired and was knighted. His popularity with his pupils and fellow-musicians is witnessed by the tablet to his memory in the crypt of Saint Paul's.

GOSSAERT, GŎs'särt, JAN. See MABUSE, JAN. GOSSAMER (ME. gossomer, gosesomer, goosesummer, from gos, goose + somer, summer; so called on account of the downy appearance, and the time of coming). A light filamentous substance, which often fills the atmosphere to a remarkable degree during fine weather in autumn, or is spread over the ground, stretching from leaf to leaf and from plant to plant, loaded with dewdrops, which glisten and sparkle in the sunshine. It is produced by small spiders of many species, and is said to be produced by young and not by mature spiders, a circumstance which, if

placed beyond doubt, would help to account for its appearance at a particular season of the year. The threads of gossamer are so delicate that a single one cannot be seen unless the sun shines on it; but being driven about by the wind, they are often beaten together into thicker threads and flakes. They are often to be felt on the face when they are scarcely visible. The spiders which produce these threads shoot them out from their spinnerets, a viscid fluid being ejected with great force, which becomes a thread; sometimes several such threads are produced at once in a radiating form, and these, being caught by the ascending current of heated air, are borne up, and the spider along with them. See SPIDER.

An

GOSSE, EDMUND WILLIAM (1849-). English author and poet. He was born in London, the son of Philip Gosse, the naturalist. Though he did not have a university education, he has received, in recognition of his services to letters, the degree M.A. (1885) from Cambridge, and the degree LL.D. (1899) from Saint Andrews. the British Museum; in 1875, translator to the In 1867 he was appointed assistant librarian in Board of Trade; in 1884, Clark lecturer in Engin 1904, Librarian to the House of Lords. lish literature at Trinity College, Cambridge, and 1884 he visited the United States, lecturing at Harvard, Yale, Johns Hopkins, and other colleges. His chief works are Madrigals, Songs, and Sonnets (1870); On Viol and Flute (1873); Northern Studies (1879); Thomas Gray (1882); Seventeenth Century Studies (1883); Congreve (1888); History of Eighteenth Century LiteraRusset and Silver (1894); The Jacobean Poets ture (1889); The Secret of Narcisse (1892); In (1894); Critical Kit-Kats (1896); Short His

In

tory of English Literature (1897); Life and Letters of Dr. John Donne (1899); and An Illustrated History of English Literature, with Garnett (1902); Jeremy Taylor (1904); French Profiles (1905); Coventry Patmore (1905); Sir Thomas Browne (1905); French Profiles (1905).

GOSSE, NICOLAS LOUIS FRANÇOIS (1787-1878). A French historical painter, born in Paris, where he studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and under Vincent, and became a skilled representative of the academic style prevailing in his earlier period. His principal works include: "Napoleon I. and Queen Louise at Tilsit," "Meeting of Napoleon and Alexander of Russia at Erfurt," and "Louis Philippe Declining the Crown of Belgium Offered to His Son," all in the Historical Museum at Versailles; and "Entry of the Duke of Hôtel de Ville, Paris. Angoulême into Madrid," a wall painting in the

GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-88). An English naturalist, born at Worcester, England. From 1827 to 1835 he lived in Newfoundland as a merchant, from 1835 to 1838 in Canada as a farmer, and from 1838 to 1839 in Alabama as a teacher. In 1844 he visited Jamaica to study the birds there. He was an accurate observer of animal life, and a voluminous and most agreeable writer. In 1856 he was made F.R.S. Gosse did a great work in advancing and popularizing marine zoology, and the influence he exerted was widespread and lasting. Among his publications are: The Canadian Naturalist (1840); Birds of Jamaica (1851); Natural History (1848-51); Marine Zoology (1856); Evenings with the Microscope (1859); Letters from Alabama (1859).

GOSSEC, go'sěk', FRANÇOIS-JOSEPH (17341829). A French composer, born at Vergnies in Hainaut. He was a choir boy in the Antwerp Cathedral, and then went to Paris, where, through the influence of Rameau, he was employed by a rich amateur, La Popelinière, to direct his private orchestra. Gossec has been called 'the father of the symphony in France.' He found all instrumental music neglected, and made it his ambition to revivify it. His first symphonies were published in 1754, five years before Haydn wrote his. While orchestra, conductor to the Prince of Conti, he wrote several operas. To him belongs the honor of having started the Ecole Royale de Chant (1784), which was the prototype of the Conservatory, and when that 'institution itself was founded (1795), he was one of the three inspectors, the others being Méhul and Cherubini. During the Revolution he was the conductor of the band of the Garde Nationale, and composed a good deal of national music for fêtes. A critic sums up Gossec as "not one of those geniuses who defy time," and he had the misfortune to see his ideas improved upon by some of his contemporaries; but his influence on the development of instrumental music in France can hardly be overestimated. His works include: Le faux lord (1764); Les pêcheurs (1766); Alexis et Daphné (1775); Philémon et Baucis (1775); La fête du village (1778); Thésée (1782); Rosine (1786); Chant du 14-Juillet, Hymne à l'humanité; Hymne à l'Etre suprême; Chœurs et chants pour l'apothéose de Voltaire et de Rousseau; some oratorios and a good deal of instrumental music. Consult Gregoir, Notice biographique sur F. J. Gossé dit Gossec (1878).

GOSSELIN, go'slǎn', CHARLES (1834-92). A French landscape painter, born in Paris. He studied with Busson and Gleyre, and in 1882 was appointed custodian of the Museum at Versailles. His principal paintings, embracing largely woodland scenes, include: "Woods in Autumn" (1863); "Environs of Bougival" (1866); “Twilight in the Woods" (1868); "December Landscape" (1879); "Between Dieppe and Tourville" (1884). In all these pictures he reveals his power to deal with large masses effectively.

GOSSELIN, PASCAL FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (17511830). A French archæologist, born at Lille, France. After acting as a Deputy to the National Assembly (1789), he became a member of the central administration of commerce (1791), and was employed in making maps for the War De. partment (1794). He was employed by Napoleon to assist in the translation of Strabo; was one of the chief editors of the Journal des Savants after 1816, and published, among other works, Géographie des Grecs analysée (1790), and Recherches sur la géographie systématique et positive des anciens (1798-1813).

GOSSLER, gös'ler, GUSTAV VON (1838-1902). A Prussian statesman, born at Naumburg. He studied at Berlin, Heidelberg, and Königsberg, and, after having held a number of Government posts, was an assistant in the Ministry of the Interior from 1874 to 1878, and in 1879 was appointed Under-Secretary of State in the Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs and Public Instruction. In 1881 he succeeded Puttkamer in the Ministry. The troubles attending the Kulturkampf were still active, and these he endeavored to meet by a

practical scheme of informal concession to the Roman Church. Thus, he did away with several provisions of the so-called 'May Laws,' such, for example, as the examination of the clergy and appointment of priests by the State. Other measures of conciliation were also devised by him, sometimes not without the opposition of the Prussian Government. He very vigorously opposed the Polish nationalistic movement in Posen, and in 1887 struck a decisive blow by abolishing instruction in the Polish language in the public schools. In 1890 he formulated a school law which gave offense to the Poles, and of whose immediate passage there was little hope, since the Government at that time required Polish assistance in the Reichstag in support of its commercial projects. He therefore resigned in 1891, and soon afterwards was appointed Lord Lieutenant of West Prussia. Consult his Ansprachen und Reden (Berlin, 1890).

GOSSNER, gôs'ner, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773-1858). Founder of the Gossner Foreign Missionary Society. He was born at Hausen, near Augsburg, December 14, 1773, educated at Dillingen and Ingolstadt, and from 1796 to 1826 served in the ministry of the Roman Catholic Church. During 1820-24 he was preacher in Saint Petersburg. As early as 1802 he was suspected of leanings toward Protestantism, and in 1826 he openly joined the Evangelical Church. From 1829 till 1846 he preached in Berlin, and labored zealously for missions, education, and philanthropic undertakings. He became a director of the Berlin Missionary Society when it was founded in 1831, but left it in 1836 because he wished missionaries to have greater liberty of action. Assisted by voluntary contribution, he continued to send forth missionaries, and in 1842 his missionary society was formally organized. It still exists, and labors chiefly in the East Indies. Gossner died March 30, 1858. Among other works he published: Geist des Lebens und der Lehre Jesu (1823); Die Heiligen Schriften des Neuen Testaments mit Erklärungen und Betrachtungen (new ed. 1888-94). Consult his life by Dalton (Berlin, 1898).

GOS'SON, STEPHEN (1555-1624). An English author, born in Kent. Entering Corpus Christi College, Oxford, he was graduated B.A. in 1576, and wrote several plays, of which none are extant. Later he attacked the stage violently, and took orders. In his School of Abuse (1579; reprinted by E. A. Arber, 1868), he began a lively controversy on the stage, which led to many pamphlets, and ultimately to Sidney's Apology for Poetry (1595).

SEWERYN

GOSSYP/IUM. See COTTON. GOSZCZYŃSKI, gosh-chun'skê, (1803-76). A Polish poet, born in the Government of Kiev, Russia. He was educated at Warsaw, and was one of the foremost leaders of the Revolution of 1830. He was one of the band of fugitives who subsequently assembled in Paris, and they exercised a very powerful influence upon him. His works are lyrical in character, and many of them are devoted to a description of life in the Carpathians and in the Ukraine. Most of them are characterized by a vein of sadness due, probably, to the political conditions which have weighed so heavily upon the patriotic poets and authors of Poland. His principal poetic productions include: Zamek Kaniowski (translated into

German and French); Król Zamczyska (1847); Oda-Powieśc 2 czasow Poleslawa Chrobrego (1852); and Poslanie do Polski (1869). He also prepared an excellent translation of Ossian. GOT, go, FRANÇOIS EDMOND (1822-1901). An actor of the Comédie Française, where he made his appearance in 1844. He was born at Lignerolles (Orne), and educated at the Lycée Charlemagne. After a short time spent as a Government clerk he entered the Conservatoire in 1841, where in the two following years he carried off successively the second and first prizes. He was elected a member of the company at the Théâtre Français six years after his début, while he speedily rose to the first rank as a comic actor. His subsequent career was spent chiefly at the 'House of Molière,' but in 1866 by special arrangement he played in Emile Augier's Contagion at the Odéon, and afterwards 'starred' in this piece in various provincial cities. One of his most popular creations was Giboyer in Les effrontés, and Le fils de Giboyer, a part to which he devoted himself for two years. M. Got was the author of the libretto of François Villon, which was rendered at the Opéra in 1857, and of L'Esclave (1874). His golden jubilee at the Théâtre Français was celebrated in 1894, and he made his farewell appearance in 1895. He died in Passy.

GÖTA-ELF, ye'tȧ-ělf (elf, Dano-Norwegian elv, river). The outlet of Lake Vener (q.v.), in Sweden, forming with its upper course, the Klar-Elf, the largest river system of the Scandinavian peninsula. The Klar-Elf rises among the Kjölen Mountains a short distance from the Norwegian boundary, and on the boundary between Svearike and Norrland, and flows south east as a violent mountain torrent, first through a part of Norway, where it is called the FämundElv, and then through the Swedish Län of Vermland, where it empties into Lake Venern at Karlstad. Leaving Lake Venern at its southwestern corner, the Göta-Elf proper flows in a southwest direction, and empties by two arms into the Cattegat at the city of Göteborg. The length of the Göta-Elf is 68 miles, but the whole length of the river, including the Klar-Elf, is 440 miles. The river forms a number of falls or rapids, of which the famous Trollhätta (witch's cap) in the Göta-Elf proper, a few miles below Venern, is the largest, and is one of the most picturesque rapids in the world. Navigation has been made possible past the Trollhätta by means of a canal, which through Lake Venern connects with the Göta Canal, constructed in 181032 at a cost of over 15,000,000 kroner, and which opens up a continuous waterway by way of Lake Vettern from the Cattegat to the Baltic Sea through the heart of Sweden.

GŌTAMA, gō'tå-må. An early Hindu philosopher and logician. He is the reputed author of the Nyaya-Sutras, or aphorisms of logic, which form the basis of the Nyaya system of philosophy (q.v.). The date of Gotama is quite uncertain; Western scholars tend to place his founding of the Nyaya system after rather than before the Christian Era; but the Hindu view inclines to make Gotama as old as the fourth century B.C. With such problems are connected also the discussion started by Sir William Jones, who attributed the development of the syllogism by Aristotle to the influence of Go

tama's writings upon Greece. This view is strongly controverted by other scholars, who seek to maintain the reverse of this proposition. As an appellative Gotama is a very old name in India; one of the Vedic seers was called Gotama and bore the patronymic Rahugana. From Gotama descended the family of the Gautamas. Buddha also was known as Gautama Buddha (q.v.), or in the Pali form as Gotama Buddha.

GÖTARIKE, ye'tȧ-re'ke, or GOTHLAND (Swed., Kingdom of the Goths). One of the three historical divisions of Sweden, occupying the southern part of the country and divided into 12 läns. Its total area is 35,783 square miles, and its population, in 1890, was 2,595,236; in 1900, 2,696,233; in 1904 (estimated), 2,745,431.

GÖTEBORG, ye'te-bôr-y', GOTHENBURG, or GOTTENBURG. Capital of the Län of Göteborg and Bohus, and, next to Stockholm, the most important city of Sweden, situated on the river Göta, four miles from its mouth (Map: Sweden, E 8). The town is semicircular in form, and lies in a plain surrounded by hills. The newer sections are built on the hills; the lower portion along the river has broad streets, partly formed by canals, and lined with trees. In the centre of the town are the Gustav Adolfs Torg, or market-place, containing a statue of Gustavus Adolphus; the exchange, and the town hall. Other noteworthy buildings are the cathedral, the Governor's palace, and the arsenal. The educational institutions comprise a university supported from private funds, with over 3000 students, mostly auditors; a gymnasium; technical, commercial, and nautical schools; a municipal library of 100,000 volumes; a museum with fine archæological, zoölogical, and industrial collections; and a scientific society, founded in 1778. The water-supply is good; the streets are lighted by gas and electricity. Street railways and omnibuses traverse the town.

Cotton-spinning, ship-building, iron and steel milling are among the manufacturing industries. Other important products are sugar, porter, paper, sailcloth, and leather; the town stands preeminent in Sweden on account of its commerce. Its harbor, recently enlarged, is rarely blocked by ice, and affords a shelter for a large number of vessels from all parts of the world. The largest exports are pig and wrought iron, steel, zinc, manganese, lumber, matches, oats, fish, and pork. Among the imports are sugar, coffee, grain, cotton and cotton goods, and coal. Göteborg receives about one-fourth of the total foreign commerce of Sweden. The United States is represented by a consul. Pop., in 1840, 26,084; in 1900, 130,619; in 1905, 140,851. Göteborg was founded on its present site in 1619 by Gustavus Adolphus.

GOTHA, gỡ'tå. The capital of the Duchy of Gotha and the second residence of the dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, situated on the Leina Canal, 17 miles by rail southwest of Erfurt (Map: Germany, D 3). Gotha is a well-built, pleasant city, near the northern edge of the Thuringian Forest. It is composed of the old town and four modern suburbs separated from it by promenades. The finest building is the Ducal Palace of Friedenstein, situated on eminence south of the old town. It is an extensive building, with two massive towers, erected in 1643 by Ernest the Pious. It is surrounded by promenades and a park, and contains a library

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