The popular feeling, however, was so strongly manifested against it, that no attempt was made to carry the scheme into execution.

It would only tire the reader's patience to give a longer history of the factions, conspiracies, revolutions and civil wars, which, down to the present moment, have continued to distract and desolate this unfortunate country. On the 10th of July, 1823, a convention, or preliminary treaty of peace, was concluded between the commissioners appointed by the king of Spain and the government of the United Provinces; this convention, however, was not ratified by the Spanish government. The independence of the United Provinces of La Plata was acknowledged by the congress of the United States in 1822, and a treaty of commerce was concluded with Great Britain in 1825. Domestic troubles were renewed shortly after; the union of the provinces was dissolved, and separate governments were established. Nothing permanent, however, was effected, and the country has been ever since kept in a state of turbulence by the struggles of the two parties called the Unitarians and the Federalists; the one attempting to create a central, and the other a federal government.

CHAPTER XXIV.

PARAGUAY.-Rebellion of Antequera in 1722.-He defeats the king's troops, and takes possession of Assumpcion.-His design of making himself king of Paraguay.-Intrigues of the bishop.-Arrival of Zabala.—Flight of Antequera Restoration of the royal authority.—Capture and execution of Antequera.— Revolutionary doctrines of Ferrand Mompo.-Second insurrection.-Death of Ruiloba.-A defender of Paraguay created.-Battle of Tabati.-End of the insurrection.-Separation of Paraguay from Buenos Ayres.-Independent government.-Rise of Dr. Francia.-His influence in the state.-Becomes Dictator of Paraguay for life.-His extraordinary government.-Despotism of his political system.-Complete seclusion of Paraguay from the rest of the world.-Francia's treatment of travellers.-Character of his army.-His private life and eccentricities.-His death.—Present state of the country. CHILI.—Commencement of the revolution.—Intrigues of the Carreras.-Civil dissensions.—Invasion of the country by Pareja.—Expulsion of the Spaniards.—Carrera displaced from the command of the army.—O'Higgins his successor.—Second invasion of the Spaniards under Gainza.-Revolution.-Treachery of Gainza.-Troubles at Santiago.-Expedition of the Spaniards under Osorio.-Re-establishment of the royal authority in Chili.-Persecutions of the Spaniards.—Arrival of the liberating army, under San Martin, from Buenos Ayres.—Battle of Chacabuco.-San Martin enters Santiago.-Movements of Osorio.-Battle of Talca.-Defeat of the Chilians.-Firmness of San Martin.-Resolute conduct of the Chilians.Battle of Maypu.-Total defeat of the Spaniards.-Establishment of the independence of Chili.—Civil dissensions.-War of Benavides.-Present state of the country.

THE republic of Paraguay is rendered remarkable by a very early attempt at revolution in that country in the early part of the last century. The chief personage engaged in this undertaking, was Don Josef de Antequera, a knight of Alcantara, and a man of high family, genius and learning. He was appointed governor of Paraguay by the provincial council, in a manner somewhat illegal, in consequence of the disaffection of the inhabitants toward his predecessor, who was obliged to flee the country. The viceroy of Peru issued an order, in 1722, deposing Antequera, which took no effect. The new governor disregarded all the orders of the viceroy, and avowed his determination to maintain himself in his office by force. It soon became evident that he aimed at the sovereignty of Paraguay. Negotiations were attempted by the Spanish- authorities, but all pacific measures proved useless, and Antequera was pronounced a rebel. The king's lieutenant at Buenos Ayres, marched against him, with an

REBELLION OF ANTEQUERA.

235

army of several thousand men. A battle took place, and the king's troops were defeated with great slaughter. Antequera entered Assumpcion, the capital of Paraguay, with triumphal pomp. The royal standards taken in battle were trailed before him on the ground, and he displayed his own banners in the cathedral, where a Te Deum was chanted for his victory. He still, however, nominally maintained his allegiance, but, in the meantime, exerted himself in amassing a great treasure, and making other preparations for a design, which he is said to have entertained, to proclaim himself Don Josef I., king of Paraguay.

It is the opinion of the Spanish writers, that, had Antequera taken this bold and decisive step immediately upon his victory over the royal army, the tide of fortune would have turned completely in his favor. But his over-cautious and temporizing policy checked the popular feeling which had burst out in his support. While he hesitated, influences were at work to undermine his popularity. The bishop of Paraguay, by secret manœuvres, detached the populace from the revolutionary cause, and before the aspirant for the crown of Paraguay had summoned the courage to proclaim himself king, the number of his adherents had diminished to such a degree as to render this attempt too hazardous. In this emergency, Don Bruno de Zabala arrived from Peru, at the head of an army of six thousand Indians and eight hundred Spaniards, with orders from the viceroy to send Antequera prisoner to Lima. The usurper of Paraguay saved himself by flight. Zabala entered Assumpcion, without opposition, on the 24th of April, 1725, and made himself master of a vast amount of treasure abandoned by the fugitives. The royal government was restored, and tranquillity speedily reëstablished.

Antequera fled to Cordova, where he took refuge in a convent. A sentence of outlawry was passed upon him, and a price set on his head. He abandoned his asylum, and fled through by-roads to La Plata, where he hoped the royal audience would espouse his quarrel. But the privileges of this court having been curtailed by the viceroy of Lima, this resource failed him, and he was arrested and thrown into prison at Lima. After a confinement of five years, he was declared guilty of high treason, and sentenced to be beheaded on the 5th of July, 1731. So great, however, was the popular ferment on this occasion, and so deep was the interest which Antequera had excited by his able writings, that the viceroy was obliged to mount his horse, and put himself at the head of his cavalry, to prevent the rescue of Antequera by the populace. The rescue would probably have taken place but for the precaution of the viceroy, who ordered

him to be shot on his way to the scaffold, where his body was afterwards beheaded.

New commotions took place at Assumpcion, where revolutionary doctrines were promulgated by Ferrand Mompo, an associate of Antequera. This man, with a degree of boldness and eloquence which raised him to great popularity, openly asserted that the authority of the people was greater than that of the king himself; and it strikes us with no little surprise, that the modern liberal doctrine of the sovereignty of the people should have been fearlessly and openly preached in the capital of a colony of the most bigoted and despotic court of Europe more than a century ago. The consequence of this was the formation of a popular government in Paraguay, in 1730, established solely by the people. But as might be expected, factions soon arose, and Mompo was seized by a loyalist partisan and sent to Buenos Ayres; he contrived, however, to escape on the road, and fled to Brazil.

When the intelligence reached Assumpcion, of the execution of Antequera and his associate Mena, who perished with him, great excitement and indignation were produced among the people, who regarded them as martyrs to liberty. The Jesuits were expelled from their college, and an army was raised to defend the popular cause. The royal governor, appointed for Paraguay, Don Manuel de Ruiloba, advanced against them, at the head of an army of seven thousand men. No opposition could be made to this strong force, and Ruiloba entered Assumpcion in July, 1733. The royal authority was reëstablished, and all officers of the revolutionary party were displaced. This soon produced another insurrection, and Don Manuel was killed by the populace two months afterwards. Paraguay had again an independent government, with a chief magistrate, bearing the title of Defender. In 1735, Zabala collected an army, and marched against Paraguay. A battle was fought at Tabati, in which the insurgent forces were utterly defeated. This blow completely crushed the insurrection in Paraguay. The revolutionary leaders were put to death or banished, and the authority of the king of Spain was reestablished, and continued for the greater part of a century.

We have, in the preceding chapter, given an account of the revolutionary movements by which Paraguay became separated from Buenos Ayres early in the present century. The destiny of Paraguay from that time has been singular. The inhabitants, like those of all the other revolted Spanish colonies, began their career of independence by various puerile attempts to establish republican forms and appellations in their government. They created consuls and legislative bodies, but in the course of three

FRANCIA THE DICTATOR.

237 or four years, the whole state sunk under the absolute control of one man, who may be pronounced the most remarkable personage that has figured in the modern history of South America. This was Gaspar Rodrigo de Francia, commonly known as Doctor Francia. He was a native of Paraguay, and never was out of South America. He was educated by the monks of Assumpcion and subsequently at the University of Cordova, in Tucuman, where he received the degree of Doctor of Theology. This man became dictator of Paraguay, and for nearly thirty years reigned over that country with a despotic tyranny surpassing that of any European monarch.

On the breaking out of the revolution, Francia was in the practice of the law at Assumpcion. He was elected to a popular office, behaved independently, flattered no party, and professed his sole political object to be the entire separation of Paraguay from Spain, and its erection into an independent republic. On the establishment of the provincial junta, he was appointed secretary of that body, with a deliberative voice; but all was confusion. The army, as usual on such occasions, seemed inclined to take the lead, and, for a time, terror and dissension alone prevailed. Francia, however, at this critical moment, obtained an ascendancy which he never afterwards lost. His superior talents, address and information, placed him above all others in the despatch of business, and nothing of importance could be done without him. Tranquillity was restored, and it was settled that the government should be consular. Francia and a colleague were appointed consuls for one year, each in supreme command four months at a time. Francia took care to secure for his share the first and last portions of the year. Two curule chairs were prepared on this occasion; one bearing the name of Cæsar, and the other that of Pompey. Francia eagerly took possession of the former. His ambitious views no one could mistake; but the grand blow yet remained to be struck. By the most consummate art and management, and by the influence which he possessed over the troops, he succeeded in getting himself appointed dictator, in 1814; and once dictator, every instrument was within his reach for the prolongation of his office. Three years afterwards he was made dictator for life.

Now commenced one of the most extraordinary events in all history, the reign of the autocrat of Paraguay. From the moment when he found his footing firm, and his authority quietly submitted to, his whole character appeared to undergo a sudden change. Without faltering or hesitation, without a pause of human weaknecs, or a thrill of human feeling, he proceeded to frame the most