of Europe. Innumerable smaller articles of curiosity or use, are also produced to a considerable amount in various parts of the empire, and are either sold for domestic consumption, or they are exported abroad.

The foreign commerce of China is, however, inconsiderable in amount, when compared with the vast internal trade of the empire. Their trading junks are extensively employed in the coasting trade, although it is the policy of the government to lay restrictions upon the commerce which is prosecuted by their own people from their own shores. Those junks are, however, notwithstanding these restrictions, found sailing to the north as far as Japan, to the Luconian Islands upon the east, to Batavia at the south, and to the west they advance to the Straits of Malacca with silk, piece goods, china-ware, sugar, rhubarb, ginseng, sandal wood, and products of this sort, returning with areca nuts, rattans, edible birds' nests, pepper, and similar productions. The internal trade of the empire by means of the imperial canal and neighboring waters, is immense. These watery arteries of inland communication are almost ever crowded with boats, which it is said contain a population nearly as large as that of the land. The diversity in fact, which exists between the productions of the different provinces of the empire, and the markets which are provided in each for those of the other, render a vast inland transportation absolutely necessary. Rice and sugar are yielded in the provinces of the south, silk, cotton, and tea, are produced in the east, the west furnishes metals and minerals, and furs and drugs are produced by the north. It is obvious that the dense population of the interior, with wants to be supplied as connected with the products of the various parts, must originate a vast inland trade. The foreign trade in leading articles of Chinese production, which until the last treaty, it is well known, has been confined to Canton, was formerly in a great measure in the hands of the Hong merchants. This body of men, as is well known, were formely appointed to conduct the commerce of the port of Canton, and to guaranty the good conduct of the crews of the vessels with which they traded, as well as the payment of their duties to the government, themselves being liable for the debts incurred by one or all of the body. In turn they were subject to such

exactions from the imperial officers as to make the office anything but desirable. This monopoly has now become abolished, and so has the Consoo fund, from which the creditors of many of them drew their payment, the fund being raised by a levy of about three per cent. upon foreign exports and imports, through the agency of the Hong merchants. Several port officers such as the " Hoppo" or Commissioner of Customs, the "Comprador" or purveyor of provisions, and the "linguist," were also connected with the ports before the late treaty, whose duty it was made to compensate themselves by exorbitant exactions from their subordinates in office.

It will hardly be denied that the Chinese eminently excel in the useful arts. To them we may justly credit the early discovery of the art of printing upon moveable types, which was there in use in the tenth century. And there is satisfactory evidence to convince us that they also discovered the art of manufacturing paper as early as the year 95. They also used gunpowder in fire-works at a very ancient period; and if they did not invent the mariner's compass, it was at least in early use by them. Their ingenuity in manufacturing numerous articles of light work, such as vases, dishes, cups, domestic utensils, and parlor ornaments, various species of embroidery, metallic mirrors, and carved and lackered ware, will hardly be doubted. Yet they do not appear to excel in the fine arts. They are somewhat deficient in drawing and painting, although the buds, insects, and flowers, which adorn their articles of taste are accurately portrayed, yet they fail in shading and perspective. They are likewise deficient in the kindred art of sculpture, or the cutting upon stone; but they are somewhat apt in the modeling of clay. Nor have they made great progress in music. Their instruments of music, although quite numerous, consisting of several species of lutes and guitars, flutes, fiddles, and harmonions of wires, touched by two slips of bamboo, as well as the various sorts of gongs which are familiar to us, are comparatively rude, and would seem to belong to a people who have not advanced to a very high state of civilization.

Another peculiar feature of Chinese institutions, is the general diffusion of education. Extraordinary as it may appear, it is not the less true, that a system of general education exists throughout

the empire of China, where almost every town possesses its public place of instruction, and each wealthy family possesses its private tutor. It appears to be the object of the government to endeavor, by diffusing the means of education, to seek out the genuine ability which exists in the community, for the service of the state. As we have before remarked, the distribution of state offices is granted to approved talent and learning, and the proportion of the community which is devoted to letters is very great. Under such circumstances it is obvious that literature, or the number of printed books, is extensive, embracing voluminous works upon jurisprudence and ethics, statistics, the drama, poetry, and indeed everything which goes to form the body of literature among civilized states. Extensive libraries are common, and include volumes connected with the various branches of knowledge relating to the above departments. The statistical works which they possess concerning the country, are indeed very voluminous. The principal of these, containing a complete account of the empire, embraces two hundred and forty volumes, describing the population, geography, revenues, magistracy, and other details, of every province of China, and also the actual condition of Chinese Tartary. Besides this general volume, each province has its own history, including an account of its productions, manufactures, eminent persons, as well as other matters throwing light upon its actual condition.

The state religion of China is derived from the system of Confucius, whose works are a mingled body of ethics and politics. The state worship is divided into three classes: the great sacrifices, the medium sacrifices, and the lesser sacrifices. Under the first are worshiped the heaven and the earth; the adherents of Confucius appearing to be lieve that there is an animating intelligence presiding over the world which rewards virtue and punishes vice. There are also other objects of worship, as the gods of the land and grain, and in almost every street altars are seen, upon which is a rude stone with matches of incense burning before it; the sun and moon, gods, genii, sages, fabled inventors of letters, agriculture, manufactures, and the useful arts, spirits of deceased statesmen, eminent scholars, martyrs, the clouds, rain, wind and thunder, military banners, and other objects, also receive divine homage. The sovereign, who is

deemed the high priest of the empire, worships heaven, while the priests of the state religion, subordinate to the emperor, are the distinguished personages who are connected with the court. Besides the system of Confucius, which may properly be denominated the state religion, is that of Budhism, the five principal precepts of which are a prohibition from putting living creatures to death, stealing, marrying, falsehood, and the drinking of wine. The priests of this religion are associated in monasteries, which are attached to the Temple of Fo, and to the nine and seven-storied pagodas which are scattered through the empire, and are connected with this worship. But this religion appears to be declining and its temples are going to decay. The Taou sect, another species of worship which has become established in China, so far as can be learned from its doctrines, inculcates a contempt of riches, honors, and all worldly distinctions, and aims at that epicurean philosophy which seeks to subdue every passion that is calculated to interfere with perfect tranquillity. This sect, however, gradually degenerated into a body of alchymists who profess to deal in magic.

From this brief view of the religion of China it is perceived that the great body of the people are idolators, without possessing any solid and clearly defined system of Christian faith. Notwithstanding the former opposition to the Catholic Church by the Emperor, we perceive that by our late treaty with the government, we are permitted to build houses of Christian worship within the boundaries of China, and by a recent decree of the imperial court, the worship of Christianity is tolerated throughout the empire.

The amusements of the Chinese are varied-gambling is frequent, conjuring and sleight of hand, shuttle-cock, kite flying, in which they peculiarly excel,

these ærial implements being sometimes constructed with great eleganceand even old men participate in the amusement; fireworks of unusual splendor, and theatrical entertainments are quite common. The dinners are also attended with much ceremony, and with a scrupulous adherence to those forms which constitute the etiquette of such entertainments in polished life. The courses are frequent, consisting, among other things, of sharks' fins, deer sinews, dogs, rats, earthworms, and other dishes, at which an European would shrink, yet those are sometimes served in fine porce.

lain, with, occasionally, silver covers and wine cups of silver gilt. The new year is the period in which presents are usually exchanged among friends, and they commonly consist of delicacies, such as rare fruit, fine tea, silk stuffs for dresses, and ornaments of various kinds, which are accompanied by a list inscribed upon a red ticket. But one of the most distinguished festivals of China is the feast of lanterns. It is noticed that among the principal ornaments of the Chinese are the lanterns of various colors, which adorn their public buildings and private mansions, and also decorate their festivals and processions.. Some of these are constructed in curious figures of animals, and being composed of silk, varnish, horn, paper, and glass, they are made effectually to represent different objects. Moving men, galloping on horseback, fighting or performing various feats, representations of beasts, birds, and other animals, in full motion, the circular movement being communicated by fine threads attached to the figures, are quite common, the whole indicating an effeminacy of taste which is peculiar to Asiatic nations. The public works of the Chinese, their imperial canal, running a distance of six hundred miles through the centre of the empire, the walls of their cities, and their bridges, exhibit the evidences of extraordinary thrift and forecast, as well as effective industry. The imperial canal constitutes a safe avenue for a vast amount of inland transportation between the remote points of the empire, and serves also as a drain to an immense extent of swampy country. The bridges, many of them, consist of solid masonry, evincing considerable skill in this species of architecture, and the great wall, stretching a distance of more than fifteen hundred miles upon the northern frontier of China proper, and which was originally constructed as a bulwark against the Tartars, is probably the most stupendous monument of human labor to be found upon the globe. The architecture which prevails throughout the various parts of the country is very uniform; it is light, the houses are low, the tent-like roof is supported by slender wooden columns, and the ornamental gateways which adorn the streets, together with the pavilions in the gardens of their country houses, sometimes surrounded by sheets of water running by rock work and crossed by wooden bridges, with their painting and abundant gilding, produce upon the whole a very pleasing effect;

although from the mode of construction, and the materials of which they are built, they all evince a want of solidity and permanence in their general aspect.

The cities of China, from their size, constitute objects of great interest, and as is probably known, the largest in the empire is Pekin, the place of the imperial court. With a population which is estimated at about three millions, it is the centre of all that is most magnificent in the nation, being connected with the residence of the royal sovereign. Surrounded by walls, and embracing so large a population, and so many objects of interest, it could hardly be expected that it could be described within a very brief space. That part of the city which is more immediately connected with the imperial residence is, of course, the most imposing. The walls of the imperial grounds inclose extensive parks, which seem to have been made into artificial hills and valleys, containing sheets of water. These are studded with small islands, themselves adorned with fanciful edifices, interspersed with trees. From these ornamented grounds arise heights upon which are erected imperial palaces, that seem like the work of enchantment. Eight miles north-west of Pekin is the park of Yuen-ming-yuen, which contains, according to popular belief, thirty distinct places of residence for the emperor and his numerous suite, each of which constitute a village. The landscape of this garden appears to be diversified with woodlands and lawns, rivulets, lakes, and canals, a part of which is artificially adorned, while a portion is left in its original wildness.

Nankin was formerly the seat of the imperial court, but now, it appears, is in a state of comparative dilapidation. Its proximity to the Keang, as well as its favorable climate, render it a populous place, with a considerable trade, although it has of late years somewhat declined. Even now it is distinguished for its silk manufactures, for the Nankeen cotton which bears its name, as well as for the production of that singular substance which is called rice paper, and composed from the pith of a plant. We are informed that the present dilapidation of the city is owing, in a great measure, to the Tartar conquerors of China, who demolished the imperial palace and the most sacred monuments during the rage of war.

The city, however, to which, as is generally known, the European and Amer

ican trade is principally confined, is Canton, and it is here that most of the foreign vessels are anchored. The streets are narrow, being only calculated for footpassengers, and the passage of sedanchairs, and are paved with flag-stones, while the houses, like those of the other Chinese cities, are low. They are occasionally ornamented with gate-ways, which are decorated in memory of distinguished individuals. That part of Canton which contains the European factories, is not unlike the other portion. In those shops which are devoted to Chinese customers, the fronts are opened to the streets, while those which are employed in the European trade are closed. The various streets are occupied by the different trades, with names according to the kinds of merchandise which are sold. Upon the side of each shop is suspended from on high, a huge ornamental label of varnished and gilded wood, upon which the particular occupation of the tenant, and the name of the merchandise in which he traffics, are inscribed. These labels being hung with the edges toward the street, and highly gilded and varnished, exhibit a vista which is very gay in its appearance. It would also seem that the principal shops connected with European and American trade, were formerly occupied by dealers in silks, lackered and carved ware, and other lighter articles, to the exclusion of cotton, tea, and other commodities; these being, at that time, restricted to the Hong merchants, whose monopoly, as we before intimated, has been abolished.

In this view which we have taken of the Empire of China, we perceive that the Chinese have already attained a considerable advance in the useful arts, and in their crude form of literature, but science is there still in its infancy. They may indeed be considered in some respects a refined people, if refinement consists in a scrupulous adherence to the minute forms of etiquette and the ceremonials of civilized life; yet in much of their moral system they have not progressed much beyond mere barbarians. To suppose that they are destitute of political shrewdness and discretion in the management of the government, we think indicates an ignorance of the nature of their institutions; for they pursue, in their jealousy of strangers, such a policy as is calculated to prevent the interference of foreigners with their institutions, and which has continued the most populous

empire upon the earth under one government for many ages. Their legal system, likewise, has the color of justice, although it is in many respects objectionable. The influence of wealth is there less regarded than in European states, while the Emperor is invested with the power of a despot, having the right of appointing his successor even out of the circle of the imperial family. The Chinese portion of the population are a quiet and tractable race, although false and distrustful, especially upon the sea-board, where a large body of Ladrones or pirates, together with the lowest class of the population, are accumulated. Yet, with all these faults, they possess, as a nation, some very estimable qualities, and are, perhaps, as conscientious as we might suppose Asiatic idolators would be, from the character of their education.

In some points of civil polity, it must be admitted, however, that they are extremely deficient, and this deficiency is especially obvious in their military establishment, which was most strikingly exhibited in the recent contest with Great Britain, in reference to the opium trade; when a comparatively small British fleet was found sufficient to bring a nation of four hundred millions of people to terms, and to compel them to the execution of a favorable treaty, granting all which the invaders required. We do not propose, however, to discuss the merits of this controversy.

"Non nostri inter vos tantas componere lites."

The Chinese army is large, consisting of a regular Tartar military force, composed of about one hundred and sixteen thousand men, numbering Mantchous, Mongols, and a few Chinese, who joined the Mantchou army during the close of the Chinese dynasty. To these may be added a force of six hundred and twentyfive thousand regular Chinese troops, and five hundred thousand Mongol cavalry who do service upon the frontiers like the Russian Cossacks. Indeed, the pacific character of the Chinese is strongly contrasted with the more active and warlike Tartars, who constitute the principal military officers, and maintain a predomi nant influence at the imperial court. Besides, their weapons of war are extremely rude and ineffective, even were there an abundance of military skill and courage to wield them with success.

The commerce of the United States

with China has already attained considerable importance. We now have about seventy vessels engaged in the China trade from our own ports, employing a capital of about seven millions of dollars. China exports to foreign countries, annually, about fifteen millions of dollars worth of different kinds of teas, treasure to the amount of fourteen millions, raw silks, silk thread, and silk goods, to the value of nearly six millions, and a considerable amount of cassia, sugar, sugar-candy, lackered ware, carved work, matting, fans and porcelain, the whole amounting to about forty-six millions of dollars. A considerable proportion of these products finds its way to this country. The imports are about equal in value to the exports, and are composed, besides other articles, of opium, rice, treasure, pearls, raw cotton, ginseng, cotton manufactures and cotton yarn, woolen manufactures of various sorts, various kinds of metals, betel nut, becho de mer, and birds' nests. The goods that we buy from that country are paid for in cotton goods, ginseng and lead, and by bills of credit which are drawn on London bankers. Besides the payment by the English for their teas, silks, and other exports from China, by their cotton goods, they also draw a large amount of the precious metals from the empire for the opium which is now cultivated to a considerable extent in their East India possessions, and they now have about two hundred vessels which are employed in the China trade. But the foreign trade, as we before remarked, bears but a small proportion to that which crowds the inland waters of the empire. The canal-boats, junks, and flower-boats, the Hong and mandarin boats, which abound in the harbor of Canton, and indeed in almost every place of trade, contain a very large and active portion of the Chinese population.

The late treaty which has been negotiated with China by our own government, if it does not extend our privileges to a greater extent than those which were granted to us by the British treaty, at least defines the relations which our commerce will hereafter sustain toward that empire. The commerce of the Union, like that of the Europeen nations, has long been subjected to arbitrary and capricious exactions, springing perhaps as much from the corrupt administration of the underlings of office in the Chinese ports, as from the absence of an uniform

and enlightened system of trade by the Chinese government, which, in its commercial intercourse with other nations, has heretofore been regardless of the principles of international law. By the late treaty, the commerce that was formerly limited to Canton, is now extended to five other ports, and it places on a clearly defined basis, the commercial relations which we sustain toward the government, regarding all which appertains to the spirit of fair trade.

There are, doubtless, substantial evils connected with the system of the Chinese government, which is a vast contraband despotism, acting through the agency of constituted boards and carefully collected statistical knowledge, with inspectors, spies and executive officers, distributed through every part of their empire. That, as a nation, they are vain and exacting, has been often demonstrated, but this spirit has been the result of their isolated position-superior to the surrounding nations, and with little opportunity to compare their real acquisitions with the more civilized countries of the world. Their religion is the spirit of a false and mystical philosophy, whose worship is in mythological idolatry, and not the spirit of genuine Christianity—a fiery exhalation from a pestilential and stagnant bog, and not the effulgent beams of the sun of heaven. We perceive the influence of their system in a loose and fluctuating, if not a corrupt administration of the gov ernment, not on the part of the Emperor, for he appears to be honest, but through the inferior officers, whose acts are obliged to travel a long distance before they meet the royal ear, and at last reach it, colored and distorted. We perceive the same influence in the concubinage which prevails throughout the empire, and in that foulest of crimes, infanticide, which is tacitly permitted, since the laws are silent upon the subject. It is proba ble that the more intimate connection of the empire in trade with modern civilized nations, will eventually work out a reform upon those subjects. We are not prepared to say that the soil of China will be soon intersected by railroads, or that the Kiang and other navigable rivers will be traversed by steamboats, within our own age: because the policy of the government is opposed to innovation of all sorts, and to the introduction of any agency that will diminish the necessity of individual labor in that over-populated country.