even in 1842 it was with difficulty that the people of Rhode Island could be prevailed upon to give up the old charter for a new constitution.

Their contents.-The state constitutions being nearly all modeled after the constitution of the United States are very much alike in their general characteristics. After a preamble, setting forth the purpose of the instrument, they usually contain a bill of rights, intended to secure personal liberty and other personal rights. They then distribute the powers of government among three departments, and provide for the organization and general procedure of each. Then follow miscellaneous provisions, relating to franchise, education, amendments, etc.

Their usual defects.-We have flourished so wonderfully under our system of government that we naturally have a great reverence for our national constitution and its children, the state constitutions. So far has this feeling gone that a large number of people seem to fancy that there is some magic in the very word constitution. As a consequence state constitutions are usually too long, they contain too many miscellaneous provisions. Most of these relate to transient or petty matters which, if made affairs for public action at all, should be left to legislation. Changes in the constitution weaken our respect for it. Rarely should anything go into that great charter which has not stood the test of time, or has the promise of endurance as a necessary safeguard of the rights and liberties of the people.

BILLS OF RIGHTS.

These usually assert or guarantee the following: Republican Principles.-That governments are instituted by the people and for their benefit; that all persons

are equal before the law; that no title of nobility shall be granted.

Freedom of Conscience.-That there shall be perfect religious freedom, not, however, covering immoral practices; that there shall be no established or state church; that no religious test shall be required for the performance of any public function.

Freedom of Speech.-That any one may freely think, and publish his opinions, on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of this right.

Freedom of Assembly.-That the people may peaceably assemble to discuss matters of public interest and to petition the government for redress of grievances. This, of course, does not permit meetings designed to arrange for the commission of crime.

Freedom of Person.-That there shall be no slavery; nor imprisonment for debt, except in cases of fraud; nor unwarranted searches or seizures of persons or property; that no general warrants shall be issued; that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, except in certain emergencies; that persons may freely move from place to place.

Security of Property.-That private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation therefor, previously paid or secured; that to prevent feudal tenure of land, long leases of agricultural land shall not be made; in most states the longest permitted term being twenty-one years.

Right to bear Arms.-That the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.

Freedom from Military Tyranny.-That the military shall be in strict subordination to the civil power; that there shall be no standing army in time of peace; nor

shall any soldier in time of peace be quartered in private houses without the consent of the owner.

Forbidden Laws.--That no ex post facto law, no law impairing the obligation of contracts, nor any bill of attainder shall be passed; that there shall be no special laws in certain specified cases.

Rights of Accused Persons. (a) Before trial. That no unwarranted searches or seizures shall be made; that, except in capital offenses, the accused shall, while awaiting trial, be bailable; that, except in minor cases, a person shall not be held to answer for a criminal offense unless on the presentment or indictment of a grand jury. (b) On trial. That the accused person shall have a speedy and public trial in the district where the crime was committed; that trial by jury shall remain inviolable; that the accused shall be informed of the nature of the charge against him; that he shall be confronted with the witnesses against him; that he may be heard in his own defense and shall have the benefit of counsel in his behalf; that he shall not be required to witness against himself; that he shall have compulsory process to compel the attendance of witnesses in his behalf; that he shall not be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law. (c) After trial. That no cruel or unusual punishment shall be inflicted; that no one shall twice be placed in jeopardy for the same offense.

Rights not enumerated.-There is usually a final statement that the enumeration of the above rights shall not be construed to deny or impair others inherent in the people.

COMMENTS ON THE ABOVE.

The rights above enumerated are among those which to us in America to-day seem almost matters of course.

We can harly think that any one would seriously question the fairness or justice of the claims there set forth. But in enumerating them we are treading on sacred ground. Their establishment cost our ancestors hundreds of years of struggle against arbitrary power, in which they gave freely of their blood and treasure.

Many of these rights are guaranteed in the constitution of the United States, but only as against the general government. That they may not be invaded by the state government, the people have reserved them in the state constitutions.

Pertinent Questions.

In what sense are all men created equal? Is there anything in good blood? What was meant by the divine right of kings to rule?

Could a Mormon practice polygamy in this state, it being part of his religious creed? Why? Can an atheist give evidence in court?

What constitutes libel? Slander?

On what basis may a mob be dispersed? petition have you known?

What cases of

What is a general warrant? A passport? Why may habeas corpus be suspended in time of war?

Give instances of private property taken for public use. What is meant by feudal tenure? How long a lease of agricultural lands may be given in this state? How about business property in a city?

May a person lawfully carry a revolver in his pocket? Why? What is meant by the military being subordinate to the civil power? Which outranks, the secretary of war or the general of the army? Why should the statement be made about quartering soldiers, in view of the preceding statement?

What is meant by an ex post facto law? Why forbidden? May a law be passed legalizing an act which was performed as a matter of necessity but without authority?

What is to hinder an enemy of yours from having you arrested and cast into prison and kept there a long time? What is the purpose of bail? Why regarded as an important element of liberty? Why should a grand jury have to indict a person who has been examined and held for trial by a justice of the peace? Does a prisoner charged with murder or other high crime remain in handcuffs during his trial? Name the three or four most important guarantees to an accused person. Why are so many provisions made in his behalf?

If a ruler should wish to subvert the liberties of a people used to these guarantees, where would he begin?

What are some of the advantages possessed by a written constitution over an unwritten one? Of an unwritten over a written one? Is any part of our constitution unwritten?

CHAPTER XI.

DEPARTMENTS OF GOVERNMENT.

Regulations and Laws.-When the school officers, acting for the people of the district, state formally what may and what may not be done by teachers and pupils, the formal expressions of governing will are called rules and regulations. Similar expressions by the town, village, city, or county authorities are called ordinances or by-laws. But when the state expresses its will through the regular channels, the formal expression is called a law.

The Three Departments of Government.-After a law is made it needs to be carried into effect. Incidentally questions will come up as to its meaning and application. Government, then, has three great functions or powers with regard to law.

In our government, and to a greater or less extent in all free countries, these powers are vested in three distinct sets of persons. If one person or group of persons could make the laws, interpret them, and enforce obedience to them as interpreted, the power of such person or persons would be unlimited, and unlimited power begets tyranny. One of the purposes of a constitution is to limit the power of the government within its proper sphere, and to prevent misuse of authority; and this organization of the government in three departments, each acting independently so far