TABLE 4.-Statistics of adult teachers in ordinary public elementary schools, England,

TABLE 5.-Statistics of training colleges for teachers, England and Wales, 1912-13.

Of the entire expenditure for training colleges, £309,632 was met by Government grants and £26,824 by local appropriations, or a total from public funds of £336,456 ($1,345,824), covering 663 per cent of

the total.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.

The education act of 1902 extends the obligation of local education authorities beyond the provision of elementary education by the following clause:

The local education authority shall consider the educational needs of their area and take such steps as seem to them desirable, after consultation with the board of education, to supply or aid the supply of education other than elementary, and to promote the general coordination of all forms of education, and for that purpose shall apply all or so much as they deem necessary of the residue under section 1 of the local taxation (customs and excise) act, 1890, and shall carry forward for the like purpose any balance thereof which may remain unexpended, and may spend such further sums as they think fit: Provided, That the amount raised by the council of a county for the purpose in any year out of rates under this act shall not exceed the amount which would be produced by a rate of 2 pence in the pound, or such higher rate as the county council, with the consent of the local government board, may fix.

1 Includes household expenses.

In accordance with this requirement, nearly all educational authorities in the Kingdom have taken measures to aid private secondary schools and bring them under public supervision, and at the same time they have established new schools of secondary character, supported entirely by public funds. The board of education also allows grants for schools of this class, and thus they are brought within the general system of State-aided education.

The board defines a secondary school as one which

offers to each of its pupils a progressive course of instruction (with the requisite organization, curriculum, teaching staff, and equipment) in the subjects necessary to a good general education, upon lines suitable for pupils of an age range at least as wide as from 12 to 17.

The school must submit to Government inspection and must retain a fair proportion of its pupils for a four-year course of secondary instruction, extending "up to and beyond the age of 16"; if provision is made in the schools for pupils below the age of 12, this elementary work must be kept in proper relation to the main purpose of the school; in case there are less than 20 pupils over 12 years of age, the school is not recognized by the board as of secondary grade.

It is somewhat difficult to adapt private schools, which have long followed traditional courses of study, to modern demands. The official requirements for the grant-aided schools are explicit in respect to facilities for science teaching, and they offer special inducements for vocational training. The measure of success in the latter direction is shown by the fact that 74 of the schools report facilities for this order of instruction. Of these, 34 maintain courses of a rural or agricultural character, 25 maintain commercial courses, 14 special courses in domestic science for girls, and 8 engineering courses for boys. Instruction in needlework is obligatory in all girls' schools, and instruction in cookery is very general; the vocational course is defined as one "combining with these other subjects of housecraft in a course which has for its distinct object the preparation for general household work, whether in the home or under an employer."

According to the latest official report the number of secondary schools in England receiving grants was 898, including 402 controlled by local authorities, 424 endowed schools, 26 schools belonging to the Girls' Public Day School Trust, and 46 controlled by Roman Catholic. orders or communities. These schools enrolled 158,832 pupils (85,110 boys, 73,722 girls), and employed 9,126 full-time teachers and about 3,000 part-time instructors. The latter are generally required for special instruction, such as physical exercise or handicraft.

As a condition of receiving the Government grant, a secondary school must provide a certain proportion of free places open to the

class of children that attend the public elementary schools. Originally this requirement was 25 per cent of the accommodation in the school, but the proportion may be reduced under certain conditions. For the year under review, approximately one-fourth of the pupils (nearly 40,000) in the schools considered were holders of free places intended for pupils transferred from the public elementary schools. The local authorities maintain scholarships covering the tuition fees for such pupils and, in some cases, a living allowance, which is paid to the parents. In this way secondary schools, formerly limited to the more-favored social classes, have been brought within the reach of poor children of exceptional capacity. This arrangement has proved beneficial to individuals, although it does not satisfy the democratic demand for an open road for all children to the higher institutions.

In addition to the secondary schools receiving grants from the board of education, there are private schools of this grade recognized as efficient, which invite inspection but do not wish to conform to the requirements for grants. Altogether there are about 1,000 secondary schools in England, with an enrollment of 179,000 pupils, in relation with the board of education. The statistics for Wales, in which the arrangements are slightly different from those in England, would increase the number of schools to 1,115 and the number of pupils to 185,000.

It should be noted, however, that the majority of private schools (the number is estimated at 14,000) do not come within this system at all. In a measure the work of these schools is systematized by the university examinations for individual pupils and for schools.

The great endowed schools occupy a place in the English system quite distinct from that of other private schools. The former have always maintained close relations with Oxford and Cambridge and form, as it were, the preparatory stage in a complete scheme of liberal and professional education.

BOY SCOUT MOVEMENT.

The record of the year would be incomplete without reference to the educational features of the Boy Scout movement in England. This aspect of the subject was dwelt upon in a recent article, from which the following particulars are cited:

The scout movement picks up a boy's teaching just at that moment in his life when knowledge counts for something more than the bookishness to which he has been subjected. First of all, there is character training, to bring out perseverence, hardihood, pluck, and skill; when the boy is taught how to get and keep himself fit, how to assist his fellows in times of emergency and otherwise, how successfully to pursue some art or craft, how to be ready to turn his hand to anything from cooking a hunter's stew to felling a tree. In this connection Sir Robert Baden Powell has stated that "I am very anxious to extend the development of handicrafts among the scouts in all points of the country."

In accordance with this purpose of the founder of the organization, increasing attention is given to the making of craftsmen, and the list of subjects for which badges of efficiency are awarded is declared to be "formidable." The list already numbers no less than 52 handicrafts which call for careful attention and a satisfactory examination before the young scout can secure a "proficiency badge." It is not surprising, says the author of the article referred to—

that employers have also begun to realize the value of the scout training and to look out for boys who have gone through it. The trustworthiness, the alertness of mind, the handiness and resource of the scout are qualities worth coveting and worth paying for.1

TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

In England, as in the United States, the subject of vocational training engages serious attention at the present time. It is recognized in England that the agencies for this work must be adapted to the industrial, social, and political conditions of the country. At the same time every disposition is shown to profit by the experience of other countries which have had longer experience in this field.

During the year an investigation of trade and technical education was conducted in France and Germany by Mr. J. C. Smail, representing the London County Council. This gentleman, who is the organizer of the trade schools for boys in the London system, was accompanied by an officer of experience from the department of agricultural and technical instruction, Ireland. The report of this investigation deals largely with details relative to the work in the cities visited. Its value to Americans lies chiefly in the comparative estimate of systems on the part of its authors.

The different ideals that direct the work in France, Germany, and Great Britain are contrasted in the report as follows:

Germany aims at the building up of a great industrial nation partly by the thorough training of the leaders as experts, partly by the training of the middle-grade workers, such as draftsmen and foremen, as thoroughly accurate and careful managers, and partly by the training of all grades of workmen and mechanics as skilled craftsmen and good citizens.

France aims at industrial excellence partly by the training of highly skilled experts and partly by the training of those who should become the best workmen and the best foremen.

Britain aims at individual excellence partly by offering many avenues of training and many chances for willing and persevering workers to climb all sections of the industrial ladder.

Each of these aims contains much good; no one of them is complete. Britain, by reason of its exceptional advantages, makes the most strenuous call upon its individuals for the advancement possible for them.

It is necessary to bear these ideals in mind in considering any organization for technical education, for while these ideals have probably not been expressed, their

1 Price, W. Cecil. The Development of the Boy Scout Movement. In The Fortnightly Review, July, 1914, pp. 123-133.

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influence has undoubtedly been behind the progress made. The German ideal may be termed the long view which must eventually lead the German nation to and maintain it in a foremost place as an industrial world power. The British method may be regarded as more philanthropic than patriotic; the ideal is admirable, but the bulk of the nation's workers are not catered for by this ideal, and on the bulk of the workers much of the material prosperity of a nation must depend.

The three countries named are alike in distinguishing between three main groups for whom vocational education must be provided. These groups are characterized as follows:

(I) Lower or junior technical education for those with an elementaryeducation only, engaged in or about to be engaged in trades, of ages from 14 to 18-to train capable workmen.

(II) Middle technical education for those with a more advanced general education, or for those who have already had some trade or workshop experience, of ages from 16 upwards to train draftsmen, designers, foremen, managers, etc.

(III) Higher technical education for those with a thorough secondary education, or its equivalent, of ages from 18 upward-to train technical experts.

It is explained that little attention was paid to the third group, because this has been repeatedly made prominent. With regard to the first and second groups the following general observation is made: The great development of voluntary evening technical instruction in Britain, which may be classed largely as middle, but partly as lower technical education, finds no adequate parallel in the systems of France and Germany. A considerable amount of work of this kind is going on, but the French and German educational experts do not appear to realize its possibilities, or perhaps too strongly realize its limitations. They accordingly look to day work as the only adequate method for imparting instruction of any real value and do not regard evening training as a practicable scheme by which individuals can gain such additional knowledge and training as will lead to their advancement from a lower to a higher grade on the industrial ladder. There is, however, evidence of a growing demand for this type of instruction in Paris and in Munich.

Under the head of general conclusions, the report emphasizes the importance of compulsory continuation schools for all youths from 14 to 17 or 18 years of age, and the opinion is expressed that, so far as possible, day training schools must form a feature of the provision for trade training.

It should not be inferred that England is indifferent to the increasing demand for trade and technical training, but following the usual custom of the country, local action precedes any endeavor to systematize the work through the agency of the General Government. The present activities in this direction in that country can only be illustrated by reference to particular communities.

The city of London affords large and varied opportunities by which workmen can improve their skill and technical knowledge; although this is chiefly provided by evening classes, many day schools have been organized for the same purpose, and their number is increasing. According to the latest reports the council maintains 17 technical institutions, schools of art, and day trade schools, and extends aid to