and characteristic æsthetic developments of the present century, the movement associated with the name of Richard Wagner.

Every thoughtful student of the "Laokoon" will find himself again and again questioning its positions. No writer considers it without making objections; Lessing himself often seems abundantly conscious that he lays himself open to attack. It is, however, everywhere fertile in suggestions,—a wonderful monument of learning, acuteness, and lucid statement. Its influence is plain upon all the subsequent literature of Germany, and no writer felt so deeply his obligation to Lessing as the one who towers as the greatest,Göthe. At the time of the publication of the "Laokoon," 1766, Göthe was a youth of seventeen, a student at Leipsic. In his old age, recalling the impression made upon him by the book, "One must be a youth," he said, "to realize the effect exercised upon us by Lessing's "Laokoon," which transported us from the region of miserable observation into the free fields of thought. The so long misunderstood ut pictura poesis' of Simonides was at once set aside; the difference between art and poetry made clear; the peaks of both appeared separated, however near each other might be their bases. The former had to confine itself within the limits of the beautiful, while to poetrywhich cannot ignore the meaning of any kind of facts—it was given to pass into wider fields. The former labors for external sense, which is satisfied

1

1 Wahrheit und Dichtung, page 2, book 7, Sime's translation.

only by means of the beautiful; the latter for the imagination, which may occupy itself even with the ugly. As by a flash of lightning, all the consequences of this splendid thought were revealed to us; all previous criticism was thrown away, like a worn-out coat.'

In many points in the "Laokoon" the truth was not reached, but every line shows plainly how eager was the impulse which drove the writer toward truth, and there are few books in the world that have stimulated others more powerfully in the effort to gain truth. Such a result is precisely what Lessing would have considered the highest suc"Not the truth," said he,—in what is perhaps the most famous of his sayings,-" of which a man believes himself to be possessed, but the sincere effort he has made to gain truth, makes the worth of a man.

cess.

1

Still further limitations of poetry are to be found in other writings of Lessing. In the treatise called "Pope as a Metaphysician," Lessing maintains that philosophical systems are no material for a poet. In fact, that a didactic poem is a monstrosity. In the treatises upon the "Fables of Æsop" again the same idea appears, the unsparing critic showing that, as it is not the function of poetry to teach philosophy, so it is no part of its function to teach morals. Let the philosophy and the morals be taught indeed, but by the sage and the saint, while the poet performs, as his sole function, only

1 Wolfenbüttel Fragments.

the task of giving to the spirit of man a noble pleasure. This limitation of Lessing was in opposition to the schools both of Leipsic and Zürich, but it became universally recognized, and has left important traces on subsequent literary history. With Lessing's work as a critic of literature must be put what is known as the "Hamburg Dramaturgy." From the sketch given of his life it is apparent that, even in his youth, the drama had for him the strongest attraction. He regarded it from the highest point of view, as an instrument of the utmost power in the promotion of human virtue and culture. He could not imagine a good dramatic author who should not possess nobility of character. At the conclusion of his Breslau life, a company of rich merchants in Hamburg had associated themselves together to establish a national theatre of a high character. In the city was a superior troop of actors, among whom were some who realized even Lessing's lofty ideal, both as artists and men. The post of dramatist and adviser in the new enterprise was offered to Lessing. He declined to write plays, but consented to take part in the undertaking as critic and counsellor. It was as if, in an American city, a body of wellmeaning men of wealth should institute a theatrical enterprise to produce plays of the highest class, in the finest manner, establishing as critic and director James Russell Lowell or George William Curtis.

Lessing began his work with enthusiasm. There was then almost no German drama; Göthe was a boy of seventeen; Schiller only seven; Lessing's

own "Minna von Barnhelm " had just appeared, -the only German comedy. The greatness of Shakespeare was just becoming known, through the efforts of Lessing himself, to the best among the Germans; but there were no proper translations, and by the nation at large he was either unknown or regarded as the uncouth savage described by Voltaire. Lessing was to publish a bi-weekly sheet, which was to be a critical register of all the pieces produced, and to accompany every step of poet and actor. The enterprise soon proved unsuccessful, and Lessing's connection with it brought him much unhappiness, but Germany gained something of the greatest value. In his criticisms upon the plays he broke the path for the German drama. Except his own Minna, there was little to be represented but the pieces of French authors. Lessing thought it necessary to destroy the prestige of the French theatre, because the founding of a German drama was impossible as long as this influence ruled the stage. It was by no means a negative strife which he waged. He developed his own views upon the drama, which were mainly founded upon the "Poetics" of Aristotle, and the thorough study of the Greek masterpieces, as well as upon Shakespeare. He spoke severely of the French, and often went too far, but does justice to the masterpieces. The "Hamburg Dramaturgy" is more fragmentary and imperfect in its arrangement than the “Laokoon.” The hopes with which it was undertaken ended in disappointment, and Lessing, from the first, had in view detached considerations rather

than a connected work. But of the service which it has rendered the greatest minds testify. The performance of one play affords him opportunity to dwell upon the terrible and pathetic upon the stage. In connection with another he discusses historical tragedy. In another he lays down the limitations of comedy. In every contribution appears his mar vellous power.

He was a critic

There is not space to consider farther Lessing's work as a literary critic. Had it not been performed, the subsequent German development in art and literature could not have taken place; Göthe and Schiller would have been impossible. But we have not yet seen Lessing at his greatest. in a higher than the ordinary sense-a judge, and of the loftiest kind. What he did for art and literature appears almost trifling before what he might have done what he longed to do-in departments yet nearer human interests. He accomplished much, but he was bound in on every side, and the mighty striver went to his grave thwarted to the end by his untoward circumstances. As his manhood went forward he appeared by turns in the fields of politics, philosophy, and religion, bringing everywhere his marvellous touchstone.

Of his ideas of government, let me begin my consideration with this declaration of his, which perhaps will seem startling: "According to my way of thinking, the reputation of a zealous patriot is the very last that I would covet; that is, of patriotism which teaches me to forget that I am a citizen of the world." It is startling; but if we develop the say