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allied arins and, ten days afterwards, the battle of Leipsic destroyed the French dominion in Germany, and dissolved the confederation of the Rhine. The king of Wirtemberg, and the other princes of the south, soon after followed the example of Bavaria; and after the battle of Hanau, Oct. 30, the French arms had retreated over the Rhine. Everywhere in Ger many the French power was now annihilated; neither the kingdom of Westphalia nor the grand-duchy of Berg any longer existed. Through out Germany immense preparations were made for the preservation of the recovered independence. The victorious armies passed the Rhine on the first days of the following year, and all the territory which the French had conquered from Germany since 1793, was regained and secured by the events of the campaign in France and peace of Paris. It was stipulated, by the articles of the peace, that the German states should be inde pendent, but connected together by a federative system. This provision of the treaty was carried into effect by the congress of Vienna, Nov. 1, 1814, and by the statutes of the Germanic confederation in 1815.

In the new system of Europe, established at the congress in 1815, and by the treaty concluded with Bavaria, at Munich, in April, 1816, the Austrian monarchy not only gained more than 4038 square miles of territory, but was also essentially improved in compactness; and its commercial importance was increased by the accession of Dalmatia and Venice. The influence of this power among the states of Europe, in consequence of the congress of Vienna, as the first member of the great quadruple alliance (changed, by the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, to a quintuple alliance,) and as the head of the German confederation, has since been gradually increasing. Of the foreign affairs of the government, which have been conducted by the prince Von Metternich, the most important is the connexion of Austria with the German confederation. The termination of the war with Russia, or, as it is called in Germany, "the war of liberation," restored Germany to its geographical and political position in Europe, but not as an empire acknowledging one supreme head. A confederation of thirty-five independent sovereigns and four free cities has replaced the elective monarchy, that fell under its own decrepitude. In the choice of the smaller princes, who were to become rulers, as well as of those who were obliged to descend to the rank of subjects, more attention was paid to family and political connection than to the old territorial divisions under the empire. The clerical fiefs, and the greater part of the free imperial cities, were incorporated into the estates of the more powerful princes, upon the dissolution of the empire, and were not re-established Only four cities remained in the enjoyment of their political rights. The following territories, with the population of each, according to the sta tistics of 1838, are comprised in the present German confederation:

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Hohenzoltern

Sigmaringen 42,990

Lichtenstein. 6,520 33. Principality of Lippe Detmold 82,970
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56,480 35. Free city of Lubeck

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Reuss (elder

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Lippe.

The present emperor, Ferdinand I., succeeded his father, Francis I., on the 2nd of March, 1835. The accession of Ferdinand to the throne has been marked by a tendency on the part of the Austrian cabinet to an enlightened course of domestic and foreign policy, the steady prosecution of which must prove of incalculable advantage for the empire and for Europe. Of the provinces which make up the grand imperial dominions of Austria, many of them have constitutions different from each other. Hungary, as an hereditary and limited monarchy, has been in the house of Austria ever since the year 1437, when the archduke, having married the only daughter of King Sigismund, succeeded to the crown. The nation, however, shares the legislative and executive power with the emperor, who exercises his authority only through the medium of the states, a kind of parliament assembling at fixed periods for the transaction of public business. The Hungarian nobility also possess great power; and they alone, in state language, are included under the appellation of the Hungarian people, the rest being included as an inferior race of beings. Bohemia, Moravia, and the Tyrolese, also have an influence in the general government, and possess, to a certain degree, the privileges of Hungary. But in most of the provincial diets, the authority of the crown is so great, that the representation can determine little else than the mode of raising taxes, so that the emperor is in a considerable degree unlimited in his sovereignty. In the ancient diet of the empire, Austria, independent of her electoral vote for Bohemia, had seven votes in the college of princes for the seven states of Austria Proper, Carinthia, Styria, Brixen, Trent, Tyrol, and Carniola. In the new diet, or "confederation of the sovereigns and free towns of Germany," Austria, without having any superiority over the other states in point of rank, was declared by the congress of Vienna, to have the presi dency with a vote. In the general assembly Austria had now four votes. The executive government consists of four great departments, established at Vienne, organized originally by the councils of Maria Theresa. One of these regulates the internal concerns of the empire, another its foreign af fairs, a third its military conduct, and the fourth the government of Hungary. These different parts of the administration are identified in numerous boards, chanceries, councils, ministries, &c. The laws and jurisprudence of his imperial and royal apostolic majesty's dominions are, taken altogether, very vague and complicated. Bohemia and Moravia are divided into circles, each under a separate court of judicature, from which lies a right of appeal to the supreme tribunal in the provincial capital. Every county in Hungary has its ruling assembly and court of justice, subject to an appeal to the district judicature, thence to the royal tribunal at Buda, and thence to the king in person. A new code of mild and salutary laws was, however, drawn up at the instance of the government, in the early part of the present century; which are made the universal code of jurisprudence for the Austrian empire.

The importance of Austria in a political, not less than in a commer cial point of view," says Mr. M'Culloch, "is evident; and as that importance depends altogether upon her power and the judicious developement of her resources, the western states are deeply interested in her prosper

ity. From the nature of the various states united under the imperial sceptre, it is clear that Austria divides the rule over the Sclavonic nations of Europe with Russia; it must consequently be for her interest to attach to her sway so numerous a portion of her subjects, who have a strong band of sympathy with a growing and very powerful rival. A mild government and a sincere attention to the material as well as moral condition of her subjects, will prove the best means of linking together provinces differing so much from each other, and each of which is too powerful to be long retained by any other than gentle means. The conduct of the cabinet at Vienna justifies the expectation that its leading members are aware of the part which they are called upon to play, and of the true sources of their own influence, and of that of the nation in European politics. If unity at home be promoted, and the material and moral condition of the people be improved, the power of Austria will be such that she need fear nothing even if she had to contend single-handed with Russia or France. The variety, however, of her population, and the different, or supposed different interests, of her various provinces, are sufficient guarantys to the rest of Europe, that the power of Austria will not be abused. The pacific policy which her cabinet has generally observed is dictated by the peculiar composition of the state, and cannot safely be departed from. While Austria may thus be looked upon as a most useful ally by the other states of Europe, and as their grand bulwark against the power and ambition of Russia, her friendship will be courted in proportion to her increase of power. Her worst enemies are those, who, by fostering disunion at home, or keeping her people in ignorance of their true interests, weaken her influence, and prevent her from attaining a position to command the respect of her neighbours without exciting their apprehensions."

HUNGARY.

As this country now forms a part of the Austrian empire, but a short notice of it is necessary in this place. The Huns are described by the old historians as a nation of ferocious savages, emanating from Scythia, or Western Tartary. They lived upon roots, and flesh, half raw; they had neither houses nor cities; and their wives and children dwelt under tents They fought without order, and without discipline; and trusted much to the swiftness of their horses. They do not appear to have been known to the Romans, until about the year 209 of the Christian era, at which time the Romans called them Pannonians.

The people of Hungary consist of seven distinct races, viz: Magyars, Slowacks, Croatians, Germans, Wallachians, Rusniacks, and Jews; of whom the Magyars are by far the most considerable. In their own country their oriental denomination of Magyars is usually given to them, the name of Hungarians being used only by other nations. Under Attila, they penetrated into Gaul, and became masters of the finest cities; and were approaching towards Paris, when Actius, the Roman general, defeated them near Troyes, in Campagne. After this battle Attila retired into Pannonia; but as soon as he had repaired his losses, he ravaged Italy; and was preparing anew to enter Gaul, when death put an end to his vic tories, in the year 454.

Attila was really what he had named himself," the terror of men, and the scourge of God." After his death, great divisions took place among the Huns, who no longer kept that name, but assumed the appellation of Hungarians; but of their history during the time of the Western and Eastern empires, and the various wars and invasions which are said to have taken place between the third and tenth centuries, there is no information upon which reliance can be placed. They began to embrace Christianity under the guidance of German missionaries; Stephen, chief of the Hungarians, who had married the sister of the emperor Henry, was baptized at the beginning of the eleventh century. The pope bestowed upon him the title of "apostolic king;" and idolatry soon after disappeared in Hungary.

Stephen, thus honoured by the pope for his services in converting the heathens, endeavoured to strengthen his kingdom by the power of the hierarchy and the aristocracy. He established ten richly endowed bishoprics, and divided the whole empire into seventy counties. These officers and the bishops formed the senate of the kingdom, with whose concurrence King Stephen granted a constitution, the principal features of which are still preserved. The unsettled state of the succession to the crown, and the consequent interference of neighbouring princes, and of the Roman court, in the domestic concerns of Hungary; the inveterate hatred of the Magyars against the Germans, who were favoured by Peter, the successor of Stephen; the secret struggle of paganism with Christianity, and particularly the arrogance of the clergy and nobility, long retarded the prosperity of the country.

The religious zeal and bravery of St. Ladislaus, and the energy and prudence of Colomann, shine amid the darkness of this period. These two monarchs extended the boundaries of the empire; the former by the conquest of Croatia and Sclavonia, the latter by the conquest of Dalmatia. They asserted with firmness the dignity of the Hungarian crown, and the independence of the nation, against all foreign attacks; and restored order and tranquillity at home by wise laws and prudent regulations. The introduction of German colonists, from Flanders and Alsace, into Zips and Transylvania, by Geysa II., in 1148, had an important influence on those districts; and the connexion of Hungary with Constantinople during the reign of Bela III., who had been educated in that city, had a favourable effect on the country in general. The Magyars, who had previously passed the greater part of the year in tents, became more accustomed to living in towns, and to civil institutions. On the other hand, Hungary became connected with France by the second marriage of Bela with Margaret, sister to Henry, king of France, and widow of Henry, king of England. She introduced French elegance at the Hungarian court, and at this time we find the first mention of Hungarians studying at Paris; but these improvements were soon checked, and the kingdom was reduced to a most deplorable condition by the invasions of the Mongols in the middle of the 13th century. After the retreat of these wild hordes, Bela IV. endeavoured to heal the wounds of his country. He induced Germans to settle in the depopulated provinces, and elevated the condition of the citizens by increasing the number of the royal free cities. The king, Ladislaus, having been killed in 1290, by the Tartars, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, pretending that Hungary was a fief of the empire, gave the crown to one of his sons; but, in 1319, Pope Boniface VIII., supposing it to be his right to dispose of the kingdom, invested Charibert, who supported his appointment with his sword. Under him Hungary became powerful; he added to his kingdom Croatia, Servia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and part of Dalmatia.

In 1437, Albert of Austria ascended the Hungarian throne. Under him commenced the intestine divisions which, joined to the irruptions of the

l'urks, almost depopulated the country. The civil war between the peo ple and the nobles, in the reign of Ladislaus V. and the Corvins, weakened it so much, that it was not in a state to resist the Ottoman power; and the army of Solyman entirely destroyed that of Hungary in 1526; when the king, Louis II., was killed. Two hundred thousand captives were takes away by the Turks. Ferdinand I., emperor of Germany, was elected king of Hungary by the states in 1527. He found the country weak in population, very poor, divided by the catholic and protestant factions, and occu pied by the Turkish and German armies. It was in a deplorable state under all the kings of the house of Austria, but more particularly so under Leopold, elected in 1655. In his reign, Upper Hungary and Transylvania were the theatre of revolution, bloody war, and devastation. The Hungarians defended their liberties against Leopold; and the consequence was, the death of the principal nobility on the scaffold, at Vienna. A man named Emeric Tekeli, whose father and friends had fallen under the hands of the executioner, in order to avenge their deaths, raised a force in Hungary, in 1683, and joined Mahomet IV., then besieging Vienna. John Sobieski, king of Poland, Charles, duke of Lorraine, and the princes of the empire, had the good fortune to oblige Mahomet to retire, and thus relieved the emperor and his capital. Leopold was resolved to be revenged on the Hungarians; he erected a scaffold in the month of March, 1687, and it remained until the close of the year, during which time victims without number were immolated by the hands of the executioner. The shocking butcheries which the Hungarians saw practised on their countrymen, filled them with horror and intimidated them. The Turks were twice repulsed and Hungary submitted. Transylvania was conquered, and in possession of the Imperialists. The crown, which, since the time of Ferdinand I. had been elective, was now declared hereditary; and Joseph, son of Leopold, was crowned king at the close of the year 1687. It continued in the possession of the Old Austrian House until the death of Charles VI., 1740.

After his death, Maria Theresa, his daughter, who had married into the House of Lorraine, and was by right heiress to his hereditary states, was in great danger of being deprived. France and Bavaria overran her dominions; but at length she overcame all her difficulties; her husband, after the death of Charles VII. of Bavaria, was also invested with the joint sovereignty. She dying in 1780, her son, Joseph II., emperor of Germany, succeeded. He dying in 1790, his next brother, Peter Leopold, grand-duke of Tuscany, became king of Hungary; but died five months after his elevation, and was succeeded by his eldest son Francis.

By the constitution of Hungary the crown is still held to be elective. This point is not disputed. All that is insisted on is, that the heir of the House of Austria should be elected as often as a vacancy happens

THE HISTORY OF PRUSSIA.

The name of Prussians was unknown till the tenth century; and its etymology is very uncertain; some authors suppose that the former innabitants, alluding to their proximity to the Russians, called themselves Porussi, or, bordering on the Russians; for po, in the old Prussian lan

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