the conquerors, who pillaged the city, and put to the sword nearly thirty thousand individuals, sparing neither age or sex. The troops endeavoured to force their way through the enemy's lines; but nearly the whole 0f them were cut to pieces. Poland, now laid prostrate, witnessed the departure of its last king, who, summoned to St. Petersburg, was compelled to abdicate his throne. The final partition of the kingdom, by the sove reigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, was not long delayed. A pension was settled on the ex-king, who retired first to Grodno; but on the death of Catherine, in 1796, he went to St. Petersburg, where he was treated with much respect and attention by the emperor Paul, at whose court he resided till his death. Fortunately for Kosciusko, and the Polish patriots in general, the new emperor looked on them with more than a pitying eye; he not only restored the former to liberty, but made him the most liberal offers to remain in his service; they were, however, respectfully declined: and the heroic chief, after spending some little time in England, went to America, where he remained a few years, and on his return to Europe, chose France as his residence, and settled near Fontainebleau. All the Polish patriots in the Russian prisons were released by the emperor Paul, and those who had been sent to Siberia, of whom there was not less than twelve thousand, were recalled. But many of the bravest Poles, who had fought with Kosciusko, making their escape, entered the French service, and were formed into separate battalions, distinguished by Bonaparte as his Polish legions.

When the emperor Alexander succeeded to the throne, in 1801, his con duct towards the Poles was not less liberal than that of Paul, his father, had been. Contrary to the plan pursued by the other two powers, he scrupled not to bestow high offices on the natives of the country, and preserved to them their ancient laws and privileges. Lithuania (the Rus sian portion) was divided into eight districts, with a governor over each, but all these governors were Lithuanian nobles; and members of the diet were elected by the people. The peasants were still held in feudal bondage, but encouragement was given to many plans which tended to their improvement, both morally and intellectually. Not long after Bonaparte reached the imperial dignity, one of his favourite schemes was that of freeing the Poles from the subjection of the three great northern powers and availing himself of the services of that hardy and warlike race, of whose valour and physical capabilities he had ample proofs in hie late campaigns. He accordingly visited Kosciusko, who was still residing near Fontainebleau, and endeavoured to persuade him to take up arms. once more, for the land of his birth; but the gallant hero perhaps doubted the sincerity of the Gallic emperor's professions, and declined his overtures; but though Kosciusko refused, there were thousands of others who flocked to his standard, and Bonaparte pursued his plan of conquest. The event of the battle of Jena, fought with the Prussians in 1806, put him in possession of Warsaw, and all that part of Poland which had been annexed to Prussia; this territory he formed into a separate slate, which he called the grand duchy of Warsaw; and, uniting it to Saxony, he gave to the King of that country the additional title of grand duke of Warsaw.

The dismembered country, which now first received internal order from foreign hands, continued in this condition till November, 1806, when Napoleon's victories led the emigrant Poles, under Dombrowski, to Posen and Warsaw. By the terms of the peace of Tilsit, July 9, 1807. the greater part of the Prussian Polish provinces was formed into the duchy of Warsaw, which received a German ruler in the king of Saxony, and, at the same time with the French code, a constitution similar to the French, by which bondage was abolished. Dantzic was to have been a republic under the protection of Prussia and Saxony, but remained a French place of arms The grants bestowed on French officers, and still more the

continental system, which destroyed all trade, exhausted the public revenues; so that Poland, amid all its natural wealth, experienced the fate oi Tantalus. The necessity of furnishing troops for the French service was also a check on the prosperity of the new state, and annihilated all that Prussia had effected at great sacrifices. Yet the woollen and cotton manufactures, that had grown up in Posen and Broomberg, sustained themselves. The government of the duchy did everything practicable under such unfavourable circumstances. The war between trance and Austria, in 1809, augmented, indeed, the sufferings of the country, but developed, to an extraordinary degree, the military energies of the people. Under the command of Poniatowski and French officers, the Polish troops rivalled the best troops of France in valour. They advanced to Cracow, and the peace of Vienna (Oct. 14, 1809) annexed Western Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw, which had hitherto contained thirty-nine thousand square miles, with 2,200,000 inhabitants; so that it now comprised sixty thousand square miles, with 3,780,000 inhabitants, and furnished a wellequipped army of sixty thousand men, which fought in Spain with great bravery.

Meanwhile Russia assumed the administration of the whole duchy. Dantzic, with its territory, reverted to Russia, and the congress at Vienna (in May, 1815) decided the fate of the country.—1. The city of Cracow, with its territory, was to be governed by its own laws as a free and independent republic;—2. The country on the right bank of the Vistula, with the circle of Tamapola, which had been ceded to Russia by the peace of Vienna, was restored to Austria;—3. The circles of Culm and Michelan, the city of Thorn and its territory, the department of Posen, with the exception of the circles of Powitz and Peysern, and part of the department of Kalisch, as far as the Prozna, excluding the city and circle of that name, were ceded to the king of Prussia, who united Dantzic, Thorn, Culm, and Michelan with West Russia, and from the remainder (11,400 square miles, with 847,000 inhabitants) formed the grand duchy of Posen, and appointed Prince Radzivil governor. All the rest was united with the Russian empire, under the name of the "kingdom of Poland," but with a separate administration, and such a territorial extent as the Russian emperor should see fit. The emperor Alexander, therefore, assumed the title of czar and king of Poland, and received homage in Warsaw.

Poland, though thus divided, preserved its name and language, as the treaties of Vienna secured to all Poles who were subjects of either of the three powers such an organization as tended to maintain their national existence. A Polish charter was accordingly promulgated (November 27, 1815). The government of the country was to be vested in a native Pole, as lieutenant of the kingdom, unless one of the imperial princes should be appointed viceroy. This was rendered nugatory by the presence of the tyrannical Constantine, as commander-in-chief. Equality of religious sects, personal security, liberty of the press, the entire possession of all employments, civil and military, in the country, by Poles, were among the promises of the charter; and these rights were to be secured by a national diet, composed of two chambers. But these promises were kept only to the ear: restrictions on the press, arbitrary imprisonment, and punishments; insults and injuries; a mockery of a diet, which was not allowed to exercise any real authority; the violation of every article of the charier by a Russian barbarian; peculation and extortion practised by the inferior officers;—these were some of the features of the Russian government of Poland.

On the death of Alexander (December, 1825) and the accession of Nicholas, a conspiracy broke out in Russia, and, on pretence that it extended to Warsaw, several hundred persons were arrested in Poland, and a commission constituted, contrary to the provisions of the charter, to in

quire into the affair. The only discovery of this inquisitorial tribunal was that secret societies had existed in Poland since 1621. In May, 1829. Nicholas was crowned at Warsaw. In 1828, however, a secret society had been instituted, for the purpose of gaining over the officers of the army to the cause of independence; and to their agency is the insurrection of 1830 to be attributed. It appears, nevertheless, that it was immediately occasioned by a sham conspiracy got up by the Russian police, who had thus induced a number of young men to betray themselves, and crowded the prisons with their victims. Not only Polish officers, youth of the military school, and students, had been gained over to the cause of the patriots, but the greater part of the citizens, and the chief nobles, were ready to encourage an effort to save themselves from what they now foresaw the occupation of Poland by a Russian army, and the marching of the Polish troops to the south of Europe. Such was the state of things when the insurrection of Warsaw broke out, Nov. 19, 1830. A young officer entered the military school, on the evening of that day, and called the youth to arms. They immediately proceeded to Belvidere, the residence of Constantine, about two miles from the city, for the purpose of seizing his person. They were joined, on the way, by the students of the university, and forced their way into the palace; but the prince was concealed in a clothes-press, by a servant, until he could make his escape by a secret door. Another party of cadets and students paraded the streets, calling the citizens to arms, and they were joined by the Polish troops. The arsenal was seized, with forty thousand stand of arms, and the insurrection became general. On the next morning forty thousand troops and citizens were in arms, and the Russians were expelled from Warsaw. The administrative council was summoned to preserve order; and, to give more influence to its measures, several of the most distinguished Poles were invited to sit with it. Measures were taken for the organization of a national guard, and of a new police and municipal government. On the 3d of December, the prince was allowed to leave the neighbournood of Warsaw, with three regiments of Russian cavalry, and two regiments of infantry, without opposition. On the 5th, General Chlopicki was proclaimed dictator till the meeting of the diet, which was convoked for the 18th. Meanwhile Nicholas issued a proclamation, in which he declared that no concessions could be made to the rebels; and, on the 24th, another addressed to the Russians, telling them that the Poles had dared to propose conditions to their legitimate master: "God," he adds, "is with us; and in a single battle we shall be able to reduce to submission these disturbers of the peace." January 24, the Polish diet, which had been opened on the 18th of December, declared the absolute independence of Poland, and the termination of the Russian dominion; and on the 25th, that the Polish throne was vacant. Although the immediate cause of this revolution was the severe punishment inflicted on the pupils of the military academy, there is no doubt that the Poles were encouraged to make the attempt by the success that had attended the Parisians in the preceding July. The object of the Polish revolutionists, however, was not to withdraw themselves entirely from the authority of the Russian emperor, but only to maintain the privileges that were guaranteed to them at the con gress of Vienna, and to get rid of the tyrannous viceroy ship of the grand duke Constantine. They had now, however, drawn the sword; and although two commissioners were sent to St. Petersburg to endeavour to effect an arrangement, the emperor refused to listen to them, and denounced the revolted Poles as traitors to whom no lenity would be shown.

Marshal Diebitsch, who had so successfully conducted the war with the Turks, entered Poland at the head of a large army. He advanced as fat as the city of Warsaw, and was victorious over the Poles near the walls of

'heir capital, February 25, 1831 (the loss of the Poles it stated to have been 5,500, that of their enemies 4.500; but when Prince Radzivil resigned the command, on the 28th, and Skrzynecki, then only a colonel, was appointed in his place, the Polish cause gained strength. This brave officer, though finally unsuccessful, like the heroic Kosciusko, proved that he deserved a better fate. March 31, he was victorious over the Russians in a night attack. He advanced cautiously, and, favoured by the darkness of the night, reached their cantonments without being per.. ceived. The advanced guard of General Geismar, consisting of eight or ten thousand men, was first attacked, and almost wholly destroyed; the Poles took four thousand prisoners and one thousand six hundred pieces of cannon. Immediately afterwards, he attacked General Rosen, who was posted with twenty thousand men at Dembe Wielski, and obliged him to retreat, with the loss of two thousand prisoners and nine pieces of cannon. Another important victory was gained near Zelechow, when twelve thousand Russians were killed, wounded, or taken, with twelve pieces of cannon. During this action, the Lithuanians and Volhynians, who served in the Russian army, turned their arms against the Russians, and materially contributed to the success of the Poles. The peasants in various quarters of Poland now took an active part in the war, and hastened, with whatever weapons they could obtain, to the army. Insurrections broke out in Lithuania, Volhynia, Kowno, Ukraine, Wilna, and even in ancient Poland, as far as Smolensk. On the other hand, General Dwernicki, who had been sent to make a demonstration in the rear of the Russians, and who had been victorious over them, was at last compelled to pass into the Austrian dominions, where he surrendered to the authorities of that country, April 27, with 5000 Poles. The ardour of the people, however, still continued, and hopes were entertained in every country that the manly resistance of the Poles would induce powerful cabinets to interfere; but, unfortunately, Prussia and Austria, being in possession of a part of the spoils of Poland, did all in their power to prevent interference, while Britain and France were too much occupied at home to render essential aid. The military operations were now prosecuted with new vigour, and the emperor, who, in a manifesto addressed to the Russians, had called them the legitimate masters of the Poles, was ready to make every sacrifice to regain the Polish throne. Their fate was soon decided. After two days fighting, Warsaw was taken by the Russians, September, 1831); the confiscation of their property and exile to Siberia followed as a matter of course; and though many found an asylum in England, and other countries, they were mostly in extreme poverty, and dependent on the benevolence of those who pitied their hard fate while they admired their patriotism. Poland was soon afterwards incorporated with Russia; and although it has its separate diet and code of laws, Russian troops are stationed in all the principal towns, and it bears every semblance in other respects to a conquered country.

THE HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND.

From the earliest times this country has been no less celebrated for the spirit of freedom which animated the inhabitants, than for the beautiful and interesting character of its scenery Snow-capped mountains, with

fertile vallies and peaceful lakes at their base, are here seen in contrast with noble forests, luxuriant vineyards, and glaciers of almost boundless extent, whose crystal pinnacles lower above each other and flash their light with all the brilliancy of a noon-day sun. But, in alluding to the geographical features of Switzerland, we must not forget that our present business is more particularly devoted to its history.

The northern and southern nations of Europe have been singularly intermingled in the history of Helvetia, whose Alpine walls seem like a barrier, separating them from each other. The Roman legions, indeed, conquered the Gauls, Rhætians and Alemanni, in the forests and marshes; but they could not destroy the northern spirit of freedom. The traces of its ancient subjugation to Rome are still visible in the Romanic language of a part of Switzerland. Helvetia, under the Romans, had a flourishing trade, which covered the land with cities and villages; and Switzerland still forms the connecting link between Northern Germany, the Netherlands and France on the one side, and Italy on the other. Before the fall of the Roman empire in the west, the northern and largest part of Switzerland, occupied by the Alemanni, had been conquered by the Franks. On the Jura dwelt the Burgundians, and Rhætia was under the Ostrogoths. Three German nations, therefore, freed the country, about K. a. 450, from the dominion of Rome.

Christianity had already been introduced into Helvetia from Italy, and as early as the fourth century there were Christian churches at Geneva, Coire, and other places. The Alemanni and Burgundians gave their laws and their habits to the Helvetians; and the Alemanni occupied the greater part of the country. Each soldier received a farm; a judge, or centgrave, was set over one hundred of these farms (forming a cent, or hundred); and the place of judgment, where he settled all questions between the free citizens, was called Malluo. Several cents formed a Gan (hence Thurgan, Aargan, &c.), the judge of which was styled count (graf); and the counts were under a duke. The great irruption of barbarians swept through the peaceful vallies of the Alps, and Roman civilization disappeared. Ostrogoths, Lombards, and even Huns, settled in different parts of the country. At last, the French, who had taken possession of the lands of the conquered Alemanni, drove the Ostrogoths over the Rhætian mountains.

In 534, they likewise subjected the Burgundians; and all Switzerland became a portion of the Frankish empire. The country, however, retained its ancient constitution; the Romans and old inhabitants were governed by Roman, the Alemanni by Alemanic laws; and each of the other nations by its peculiar code. The Christian religion was restored anew and the desolated fields were again brought under cultivation. On the partition of the empire of the Franks among the Merovingians, Switzerland was divided between two sovereigns; one reigned over Alemannian, and the other over Burgundian Switzerland, or Little Burgundy. Pepin reunited the whole country, and Charlemagne encouraged the arts and sciences in Helvetia. Under his feeble successors, the counts became more and more independent of the royal authority, and finally made the possession of their gans hereditary. One of them (Rodolph) established, in 888, the new kingdom of Burgundy, between the Reuss and the Jura. Nine years previously, Boso had established the kingdom of Aries, in the territory between the Jura and the Rhone. Thirty years afterwards, the two Burgundian kingdoms were united. The counts in the other part of Switzerland were still nominally subject to German kings; but they conducted themselves as princes, assumed the name of their castles, and compelled the free inhabitants of their gans to acknowledge them as their lords. Hence arose a multitude of independent and complicated govern. ments, whose chiefs were engaged in continual feuds with each other