vated in Illinois. The hoe has been far too much relied upon as the implement for the cotton field. Now the hoe is the rudest, the least effective, and the most exhaustive to strength and patience of any tool largely used in our fields. On all level lands the following method of culture would be a decided improvement on that now in vogue. Apply manure in March, and immediately after cover it by one deep, thorough ploughing. At planting time harrow the field, and then, with a marker, lay off the land in rows and cross rows, say four feet one way by three the other. Let the seed be well selected from large perfect bolls which ripened early. Just before planting soak it for a day or two, and roll it in a mixture of gypsum, ashes, and guano. Let the seed-dropper follow immediately after the marker, depositing five or six seeds in the little pit produced at the crossing of the rows. In this manner a perfect stand may be obtained of thrifty plants, at regular intervals, so that by running the ploughs each way the first cultivation may be performed very rapidly, and nearly all the subsequent labor can be done with the plough rather than the hoe. This method of cotton planting has been long and successfully practiced by Dr. Cloud, of Alabama, and is earnestly recommended in his writings on cotton culture. Another important improvement greatly needed in the southern cotton fields, and which will now be introduced to an extent never practiced before, is a judicious rotation of crops. The practice of keeping the uplands of the cotton region constantly under the plough, with no variation in the crop, except the change from corn to cotton and from cotton to corn again, has been earnestly deprecated by all the best writers on southern agriculture, and by none more earnestly than by Dr. Cloud, who, from his long-established and highly successful system of culture, has demonstrated its great importance.

Another radical modification of the former system, which ought to be made immediately, and which would give to cotton-growing an impetus which it could derive from no other source, is the building of neighborhood gin-houses in wellchosen locations, so as to be central to large farming communities. These mills should be propelled by steam, and furnished with the best of apparatus for ginning and baling cotton, and also for extracting oil from cotton seed. The existence of such a mill within the distance of five miles would be a strong inducement to the small farmer and the poor immigrant, from the northern States or from Europe, to engage at once in the planting of cotton. Under the present system it requires considerable capital to justify one in embarking in a planting enterprise, a large part of which is absorbed in the purchase of a gin, the construction of machinery to run it, and the erection of a gin-house, or in the high price of a cotton farm if it has all these improvements. In the future the uplands of the south are destined to be cultivated to a very great extent by persons in modest circumstances, who will till farms of from twenty to eighty acres in extent. Nine-tenths of this class of cultivators will never become the owners of a well-appointed gin-house, and the practical difficulty will be in not having the means of preparing their cotton for distant markets at the right time and in the best manner. There is no southern enterprise in which capital could be invested with greater safety, or with more certainty of sure returns, than in building such mills at well-selected points. They should be equipped with the best arrangements for ginning, a press sufficiently powerful to put four hundred pounds of best cotton within a space of a cubic yard, and a mill and other apparatus for the production of cotton-seed oil. There should be, in addition, the spindles and looms necessary for the production of forty or fifty thousand yards annually of the coarser fabrics.

What would now be the practical bearing of such establishments, located at proper intervals through the great cotton regions of the south? In the first place, the large land-owners, whose fortunes now consist in surfaces not more than one-tentli of which they are able to cultivate, would find an immediate and increasing demand for tracts of from forty to eighty acres in extent, which would

be settled upon and cultivated by poor but industrious people. These settlers or immigrants would require no investment beyond the price of a few mules and a few ploughs, for they would expect to take their cotton in the seed to the mill, and there find a market for it. In many cases they would be only too glad to exchange raw cotton in the seed for a sufficient amount of plain muslins and linseys to clothe their families. The value of the oil expressed from the seed would be sufficient to pay the mill-owner for ginning, and thus justify him in giving the small cotton-grower as much for his unginned cotton as he could get for ginned cotton in New Orleans, Mobile, or Charleston.

The various hands employed about such a mill could thus find steady employment for six or eight months of the year, and during the picking season they could make excellent wages working in the fields at so much a pound, or for a fractional share of the amount picked, while such a supply of labor from the mills would warrant the farmer in planting a third more cotton than he would if no such extra help were possible.

This plan is earnestly recommended to all capitalists who are desirous of making such investments of their money as will secure the most general prosperity, heal the breaches and repair the damages of the civil war, and thus exhibit the highest political wisdom by a practical solution of the labor problem in the south, and insure the greatest good of the largest number of people.

IMPROVEMENTS IN COTTON SEED.

The most serious difficulty encountered by cotton-growers, and particularly those who are engaging in such enterprises for the first time since the war, has been found to be poor seed. This is attributable to two reasons. First, cotton seed loses its germinating power unless carefully withheld from moisture, and kept cool; and, second, for seven years little or no pains have been taken by any cotton-growers to perfect their seed.

After passing through the gin the seeds of the cotton still have a little fine lint attached to them. This causes them to cling together, and mat down in such a way that the air is excluded. For this reason special pains should be taken with seed intended for planting. The seed should be spread upon a loose scaffold, so as to allow free access of air, and be frequently stirred, so that none may be spoiled by fermentation.

Cotton seed may be perfected by the same care that is bestowed upon corn and potatoes; and where a planter aspires to success in his business and high position as a southern agriculturist, nothing is more directly in his line, or pays better for the time it occupies, than the development of the most perfect plants, as regards both the amount and quality of staple produced. By what steps or methods of culture can the cotton-grower develop superior qualities in his seed cotton? By way of introduction to a few practical suggestions, in answer to this question, let it be borne in mind that the superiority of one variety of cotton seed over another may be either in the fineness of staple which the plant yields, or in the number of bolls developed on each plant. Some varieties excel in quality, others in quantity. The planter should bear in mind that, as stated in the early part of this paper, some kinds of manure tend to produce size, and others spend their force mainly upon the seeds, and through the seed upon the length and fineness of the staple. It is recommended to the cotton-grower to select a field having a southern exposure and a moderate slope, at a short distance from his barn, for the planting of that part of his crop to which he looks for his seed cotton. Suppose the land to be good, and that he has ten acres in his field, let him put upon it the greater part of his barnyard manure, and, in addition, some of the concentrated fertilizers, such as lime, bone-dust, guano, ashes, and gypsum. He may vary the application of his manures, so that one part of the field will be particularly rich in potassa, and the other in phosphate

of lime. The planting and cultivation should be done in the best manner. Early in September the bolls will be open, so as to enable him to commence picking. This should be done by a skillful hand, and this he will generally find in some old person, who has had many years' experience in the cotton field. Let the picker have two bags, into one of which he puts bolls from the thriftiest and most prolific plants, and into the other such bolls as are large and well developed, and remarkable for the softness and length of the fibre. In this way he will obtain two classes of improved seeds, one likely to produce very largely, and the other likely to yield a superior staple. On the year following, let him use discretion in planting these two varieties, which, for distinction's sake, we will suppose he calls by different names, marking one "silk cotton" and the other "multiboll." His "multiboll" should be planted on his freshest soils, and such as abound in potassa; and his "silk cotton" on the older lands, which, for the purpose of producing a fine quality, should receive a top dressing of bone-dust or guano. Let him also, as before, choose ten acres for the raising of his seed cotton, planting one-half of it in "silk" and the other half in "multiboll." In this way he will soon be known as the producer of two superior qualities of seed cotton, and find such a demand for his seed, that it will be worth five dollars a bushel, so that each acre may yield him a greater return in cotton seed than in lint. This would, with certainty, be the reward of his painstaking, unless most planters, by similar painstaking, produce greatly improved varieties; but supposing no seed were sold, the difference between improved and unimproved seed is very great, suflicient to justify the most thorough painstaking on the part of the planter. The various new and improved varieties of cotton seed which, from time to time, have enjoyed a brief but lucrative popularity, such as the "Brown," the "Banana," the "Cluster," the "Hogan," the "Sugar Loaf," "Boyd's Prolific," and "Hundred Seed," were developed from the ordinary Mexican, or "Petit Gulf," in precisely the manner above described. For some time the "Mastodon" seed commanded five dollars a bushel. "The Hundred" seed, a superior variety developed by Colonel Vick, of Vicksburg, from the "Petit Gulf," sold, year after year, at two dollars a bushel; and the "Banana" had such a wonderful reputation fifteen years ago that the seeds were sold at a dime each, or one hundred and fifty dollars a bushel!

It need hardly be suggested to an intelligent planter that any seed which he may develop by painstaking, or purchase at a high price, will deteriorate in two or three years by neglect and careless culture; on the other hand, by taking the steps above detailed, he may improve any seed so as to double or treble its value. A variety of cotton that opens early may be obtained by gathering, from year to year, all the seed cotton in the early part of September. In like manner the famous "Prolific" cotton originated from a single stalk, which was selected, and its seeds carefully preserved, by a Mississippi planter, who observed it in passing through his fields. A year or two of careful experimenting will teach the planter which variety is best for a particular description of soil; some doing best on soils of moderate fertility, and others requiring rich bottoms. If he purchase but a single bushel of any variety known to be superior, this will plant two acres. These two acres will yield him, at least, six hundred pounds each, or twelve hundred pounds of carefully selected seed. These twelve hundred pounds will be sufficient to plant eighty acres. Thus, at a very small expense, and with moderate care, he may soon be in possession of the best quality of cotton seed; and the difference between the inferior grades and the first quality of seeds is, practically, in many cases, the difference between harvesting four hundred pounds of cotton from an acre, and the harvesting of two hundred pounds from the same area, and with the same amount of labor. On the other hand, if the planter's ambition has taken a somewhat different direction, and he prefers quality to quantity, proper care will enable him, in a few years, to produce a staple which, for softness and fineness, approaches the Sea Island cotton, and for manufacturing

purposes would be worth twice as much per pound as good middling upland. It should be stated, however, by way of qualification, that the great improvements in cotton and cotton seed are not to be obtained, even by the utmost painstaking, in all parts of the cotton belt. The country between 32° and 34° north latitude has always produced the best varieties of upland. In the Mississippi valley, the region a little north and east of Vicksburg, has been famous for its improved varieties. The widely known "Petit Gulf" originated a few miles below Vicksburg. It is worthy of remark, also, that very little has ever been gained by importing foreign seeds, such as "Nankin," or the Egyptian and West Indian varieties. Cotton from any part of the world, in a few years, adjusts itself to the zone and soil where it is constantly planted; and, as a general rule, the cotton-grower will accomplish more by scientific cultivation of the seed he has, developing the best for his lands, than by spending time and money in the introduction of famous but untried varieties.

AIDS TO CATTLE FEEDING.

BY L. S. ABBOTT, PAINESVILLE, OHIO.

THE TURNIP.

THE turnip is a useful vegetable, and becomes the subject of interesting inquiry from two facts: that it is an esculent for the table, and an excellent article for feeding stock. For the table it is not so valuable on account of its nutritive as for its gustable qualities. It becomes desirable, however, by increasing the number of esculent roots for the table. The carrot, it is true, is more nutritious for stock, but it is not half so easily grown nor half so sure a crop as the turnip; and while the carrot is not so generally relished on the table, there are, in comparison, few palates that do not find the turnip agreeable. Moreover, the experienced agriculturist must confess that the turnip is the cheapest and the easiest grown of all the roots.

VARIETIES.

Men now living, who were obtaining their agricultural experience fifty years ago, say that they then knew of but two varieties of the turnip, the Flat Dutch, and one other. Now there are one hundred varieties, more or less, in existence, of American, English, French, and Swedish origin; but of all these the cultivated varieties are reduced to a very small number. A Philadelphia seedman imported fifty-two varieties, and yet he offers to the public for sale the seeds of less than a dozen; and a dozen varieties comprise nearly all in general cultivation. It is quite sufficient for the purposes of this article to confine it to a practical consideration of the subject, and hence to introduce only those sorts desirable for enltivation.

In the northern States, for a half century or more, the Flat Dutch has been grown. Tradition and superstition have enjoined upon the agriculturist to sow it, without fail, on "the 24th day of July, wet or dry." This turnip, although it has been cultivated so long and so extensively, is really an inferior article. Its quality is passable only under the most favorable circumstances. It cannot be relied on in a timber country unless grown on new soil, as where a piece of new ground is cleared, the brush burned off, and the seed raked in. It grows, also,

in its greatest perfection on the sod of the western prairies. But good as this variety may be when fresh, it does not keep well, wilting and becoming pithy. For the table they are quite indifferent.

The

Two strap-leaved varieties are much grown in the middle States, and the most northern of the southern States, and to some extent still further north. difference in these two varieties is more in the color than the quality, one of them being white and the other yellow. The white one, from its resemblance to the Flat Dutch, would be readily confounded with it by the casual observer. They are of better quality, and yet they are decidedly inferior to some other varieties.

But there are three varieties better than all the rest, an account of which will serve the ends of this article. Of these I first notice the third one as regards quality-the old ruta-baga. This root, when grown under favorable circumstances, is good, but is as variable as the Flat Dutch; and when the soil and season are unsuited to its growth, the root is tough, stringy, strong in flavor, and unpalatable, and too often is perforated by worms. It is certainly an uncertain grower, and the horticulturist and the husbandman are more likely to get a poor article than a good one.

The White Norfolk is a better grower, and the producer is much more sure of a crop and of quality of root than with the former. It should be more generally cultivated, especially when an increase of varieties is desired.

But incomparably the best turnip in my opinion, is the "Russian," or "Sweet Turnip." It seems to combine all the good qualities of the turnip family, and certainly has no peer among the varities that have been introduced among the people. Being the sine qua non of its kind, it will require a more extended notice than has been given to those mentioned above.

It has a sweet flavor, as its name indicates, is crisp, has more substance than any other variety, and as an esculent root, is very relishable. The grower of it never need fail of a crop, either in quantity or in quality, unless the season is unusually bad. With a rich soil and good cultivation the sweet turnip will never be pithy, wormy, tough, stringy, or have any acrid, pungent flavor, as is too often the case with most of the other members of the family.

Theories have been indulged in by various writers, whose opinions or statements could not have been based upon actual experiences. They assert that the large leaves of the turnip draw from the atmosphere a large portion of its support, and that, therefore, condition of soil is of secondary importance. This theory must be the offspring of the thought that, as the root is composed more largely of water than nutritious substance, its support must be derived from the humidity of the air. There is one other fact which goes to sustain this atmospheric theory: a moist soil is not requisite to grow the turnip most successfully. The largest Russia turnips I have ever produced were grown on sandy sweet potato ridges, where the potato plants had died out. Undoubtedly every plant receives some nourishment from the air, but experience demonstrates the fact that a rich, productive soil and good care are needed to grow good turnips in abundance.

For transplanting, the seeds should be sown from the 15th of June to the 25th of the same month, and the ground selected for the purpose should be new ground, near the barn, or some corner of the garden, or in the fields where the patch will be protected, the bed of a brush heap being a desirable place, or some retired spot where the soil has been resting. Turnip and cabbage plants have, as enemies, when young, many destructive insects, and such places as are here indicated are comparatively exempt from their presence. The plants will be ready for transplanting about the middle of July.

WHERE TO GROW TURNIPS.

The villager will find that his early onions, early potatoes, and his peas will come off in time for transplanting his turnips. Spade up well after in