drawn is first made. This being easily rubbed off, the student is thus enabled to get the outline with less trouble than would be possible with crayons, which are only resorted to after a correct outline has been obtained. The life-school, as it is called, or more properly speaking, drawing from the living form, is generally conducted in | the following manner. The model, or person who is to stand, or pose, is placed generally under the light, in whatever position may be chosen by the students. They then arrange themselves around the model, and begin their drawings. The model stands from twenty-five to fifty minutes in one position. A rest is then taken, and at will the model again assumes precisely the same position as before, and the drawing goes on until each student has finished. Haven; namely, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, the National Academy of Design, and the Yale School of the Fine Arts. Ten of these institutions are for the special training of artists. Three others, the Boston Art-Club, the Palette Club, and the Ladies' Art-Association, are voluntary associations of artists, with life-classes, etc., for their own improvement. In some of these schools nearly every kind of art-culture receives attention, - drawing from the flat, from simple objects, casts, the antique, paintings, and from life; modeling in clay, wax, and plaster; painting in oil and water colors; architecture; and fresco painting. In others, the instruction is given with special reference to the practical application of science to art, to the education of skilled artisans, to mechanics, manufacturers, etc. Art-Schools in the United States.-The number of art-schools or institutions affording artinstruction, in the United States, according to The number of art-schools is so small, comthe Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Edu-pared with the number of inhabitants, that, in cation, for 1874, is twenty-six; as shown in the following table. fact, but very little national progress in art-culture can be expected. On account of the lack of opportunities for studying painting and sculpture, most students who have the means go to Europe to obtain those facilities which are not to be found in this country. According to the Report above quoted, there are only 27 art-museums and art-collections, of colleges, etc., in the United States. Of these seven are in New York, six in Massachusetts, two each in Connecticut and Pennsylvania, and one each in Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, New Hampshire. Ohio, Rhode Island, Vermont, and the District of Columbia. The incomes of eight of these institutions, in 1874, were reported as amounting in the aggregate to about $200,000; but of this. $70,000 was reported as the income of the Corcoran Art Gallery, at Washington, which has an endowment of $1,000,000. Eleven of the twentyseven institutions above referred to are art-collections connected with colleges or universities, and most of them are of recent foundation,-five since 1872. Instruction in Drawing.There is a growing appreciation of the value of drawing as a branch of common school instruction, and a much clearer perception of the fact that to teach drawing systematically in the schools of the people is to lay the foundation not only of national art-culture, but of national progress in the industrial arts. The state superintendents and many of the city superintendents of public instruction express this sentiment very generally and strongly, and earnestly advocate the encouragement of drawing in the public schools, especially for the purpose of educating that class of pupils who are to become the future skilled laborers and artisans of the nation. As an illustration, we quote the words of the Superintendent of Indiana: "Indiana, as much as any state in the Union, needs to look after these interests, and needs to educate her children for the work which must either be done by them or by some more skillful class, imported from abroad to supply their places. Her wood, wool, minerals, and other rough materials are ART-EDUCATION carried away and manufactured into the commonest articles of daily use, and are returned to the state as imported articles at an enormous cost. . . . The skill of our native workmen is limited through want of training, and our labor is not, therefore, of the most profitable quality. That our system of education is in this point defective, and that it needs such improvement as shall look to the preparation of persons for skillful labor, are no longer matters of question." (See Report, 1874) He therefore, recommends that the statutes of the state be so amended as to include drawing as one of the common school branches of study. In Massachusetts, much has been done in this direction, in compliance with the law of 1870, which provided that any city or town may, and every city and town having more than 10,000 inhabitants shall, annually make provision for giving free instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing to persons over fifteen years of age." Of the twentythree cities and towns of the State, in 1874, twenty had complied with the statute. In 1871, on the invitation of the school committee, Mr. Walter Smith, head-master of the school of art in Leeds, England, took the direction of this branch of instruction in the public schools of Boston; and subsequently was appointed State-Director of art-education. In 1873, the State Normal Art-School was established at Boston, under the direction of Mr. Smith, for the training of art-teachers, or teachers of industrial drawing, which institution, in 1874, had 12 instructors and 240 students. The results of this system, so complete and admirable, have thus far been eminently successful. The state of New York, following the example of Massachusetts, in 1875, passed a law requiring industrial drawing to be taught in all the common schools of the state. (See DRAWING.) Mode of Establishing Art-Schools.-The first thing necessary for the establishment of artschools, or for the introduction of drawing, modeling, and designing into schools already established, is to obtain capable teachers, or artmasters. These must be trained in the art in, normal schools; or the officers of school-districts may institute classes for this purpose. The Cooper Institute, in the City of New York, and the School of Design, in Cincinnati, and some others, have prepared a considerable number of excellent art-teachers. The state normal schools have also done something in this direction, but have the facility and means, if properly applied, to do very much more. The customary mode of procedure in art-instruction has already been explained; but the various methods of instruction in drawing will be given in another part of this work. (See DRAWING.) Modeling has not yet become as prominent in industrial art-education as its importance demands. With out doubt, the modeling of real forms is much more beneficial for the future artisan than the representation of forms upon flat surfaces. It will be readily perceived that the wood-carver, cabinet-maker, machinist, jeweler, and all others whose work consists in the production of forms, would be better trained in this way. To the designer of fabrics, drawing on flat surfaces is the preferable practice; but in nearly all other cases, modeling affords the most efficient training. A set of objects classified and graded, from the simplest to the most complicated forms, as well as compositions for drawing and modeling purposes, is of great value in this instruction; and, accompanying this, there should be a comprehensive text-book, or manual, giving directions as to the modes of teaching, the arrangement of rooms and studios, the adjustment of lights, and the placing of casts and models; together with a full description of the materials and instruments needed at each stage and in each department of the instruction. For valuable information and suggestions in this direction, see Art-Education, by Prof. C. O. THOMPSON, in Report of Commissioner of Education (1873). Importance of Art-Education. This country can compete with foreign nations in the production of articles requiring taste and skilled labor only by establishing schools for instruction in the fine arts and in industrial art, so that the native artisans may be properly educated. Millions of men, women, and children, in Europe, are at the present time receiving an industrial art-education at the public expense; and the United States, through the state or national governments, must make a similar provision. The following facts clearly show this necessity. In 1874, there were exported from the United States articles upon which skilled and mechanical labor had been expended, of the value of $24,631,835; while the value of such articles imported, was $177,857,132. In the same year, the articles of taste and skilled labor exported from France amounted to $434,513 800, and from England, to $384,787,944. The contrast presents an instructive lesson as to the importance of art-education in its relation to national wealth and prosperity.-See Modern Art-Education (Boston, 1875); Official Report of the Vienna Exposition (1873); Reports of U. S. Commissioner of Education (1872, -3, -4.) ARTISANS, Education of. See TECHNICAL EDUCATION. ARTS, Liberal. The term arts, or liberal arts, was, during the middle ages, applied to certain studies which constituted an essential part of a learned education. The full course of study, at that period, embraced "the seven liberal arts,' three of which-grammar, logic, and rhetoric— composed what was called the trivium (the triple way to eloquence); and the remaining fourmusic, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomyconstituted the quadrivium (the quadruple way). The term faculty of arts denoted, in the universities, those who devoted themselves to philosophy and science, in contradistinction to the faculty of theology, of medicine, or of law. Master (Lat. magister) was used to designate one who taught the liberal arts; and doctor, one who taught or practiced divinity, law, or medicine. The first degree (gradus) of proficiency in the arts, instituted, as it is said, by Gregory IX. about the middle of the 13th century, was that of bachelor (Lat. baccalaureus); and the second that of master, which originally conferred the right, and indeed imposed the duty, of teaching one or more of the liberal arts. This title, in the colleges and universities of the United States, England, and France, is now merely honorary. (See DEGREES.) ASCHAM, Roger, a celebrated English scholar and teacher, who flourished during the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and Elizabeth, was born in 1515, and died in 1568. Te graduated at St. John's College, Oxford, in 1537, became a college tutor, and was appointed to read Greek in the public schools. In 1545, he published Torophilus, or the School of Shooting, in which, as Dr. Johnson says, he designed not only to teach the art of shooting, but to give an example of diction more natural and more truly English than was used by the common writers of that age." In 1548, he was appointed teacher of the learned languages to the lady Elizabeth, afterwards queen, and continued to perform that service for two years. In 1553, he was appointed Latin secretary to Queen Mary, and was continued in the same office by Elizabeth, besides acting as her tutor in Latin and Greek. His most noted work is The Scholemaster, or a Plain and Perfite Way of teaching Children to understand, read, and write the Latin Tonge," published by his widow in 1571. Dr. Johnson said, this work was “perhaps the best advice that was ever given for the study of languages;" and a recent authority says: "This book sets forth the only sound method of acquiring a dead language." See Life of Ascham, written by Dr. JOHNSON for an edition of his English works, published in 1761; GRANT, De Vita Rogeri Ascham; WOOD, Fasti Oxonienses; HARTLEY COLERIDGE, Lives of Northern Worthies, vol. I.; QUICK, Essays on Educational Reformers (London, 1868.) The last mentioned work contains an excellent sketch of Ascham's method. 66 ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. By this is meant that relation or connection which is formed between ideas, so that one immediately suggests the other, hence called by Dr. Brown the principle of simple suggestion. This law of mental operation demands a most careful consideration in both moral and intellectual education. Feelings of pleasure and pain are often associated with certain ideas or objects in the minds of pupils at school, and thus control their whole after life. Antipathies, prejudices, or predilections are thus so firmly fixed, that they can never be eradicated. The law of association. rightly applied by the teacher, may thus be used to establish in the minds of his pupils an abhorrence of meanness and wrong, of falsehood and dishonesty, which will go far toward forming a thoroughly virtuous character. This law has a very important application in the intellectual training of the young, and in the general cultivation of the mind. Here we are to consider the various ways in which the law of association operates. (See FACULTIES, DEVELOPMENT OF.) The power to control the succession of our ideas or thoughts very much depends upon the habits we may have formed in establishing these associations. If the ideas with which a person's mind is stored are connected only by arbitrary or accidental associations, he will find it difficult to arrange his thoughts on any subject in a regular, logical order. On the other hand, there are minds so trained as to be able, at any moment, to command their ideas upon any subject with which they are acquainted, so that they flow forth in an unintermitting logical stream. Macaulay says of Sir James Mackintosh, “His mind was a vast magazine, admirably arranged; every thing was there. and every thing was in its place. His judgments on men, on sects, on books, had been often and carefully tested and weighed, and had then been committed, each to its proper receptacle, in the most capacious and most accurately constructed memory that any human being ever possessed. It would have been strange indeed, if you had asked for anything that was not to be found in that immense store-house. The article which you required was not only there; it was ready; it was in its own proper compartment. In a moment it was brought down, unpacked and displayed." This admirably expresses, of course in a very high degree of development, and partly as the result of a natural constitution of mind, the intellectual quality to be aimed at by the teacher, in connection with the association of ideas. It follows, too, from this that the law by which ideas become permanently associated by means of repetition, should have a most important place in the consideration of the teacher. Certain branches of knowledge require the special application of this law; such as arithmetical tables, grammatical paradigms, and all other things that, having no logical relations, are to be arbitrarily associated. The point to be gained in such acquisitions is to connect these ideas in the mind in such a way that one will instantly, and, as it were, automatically, suggest the other. The perceptions of sight and hearing may both be brought into play in accomplishing this. The former are, without doubt, the strongest and the most enduring, as Horace truly says, Segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem, Quam quæ sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus. Hence the use of the blackboard and slate, particularly the former; also the importance of repeating aloud from the printed page. (See INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, MEMORY, MNEMONICS, and ROTE-TEACHING.) ASTRONOMY (Gr. dørpov, a star, and vóuoc, a law), the science which treats of the heavenly bodies, has peculiarly strong claims to a place in every educational scheme of study, both as a means of intellectual training, and on account of the practical value of the class of facts which it embraces, as well as its ennobling influence upon the mind of the student. The progress of this science in modern times has been perhaps the most interesting feature of the intellectual history of the period, and its cultivation in this coun try has shed a peculiar luster upon American short time, acquire such an experience of their scientific and mathematical genius. The im- own, as will enable them to pursue the study mediate results of this study not being so obvi- with interest and success. As soon as they have ous as those of most others to which is universally acquired a clear conception of these natural apconceded a place in the courses of instruction pearances, their attention should be called to the prescribed for common schools, it has been in explanation of them; and in this, for a short time these schools, comparatively speaking, a neglected at least, it would be well to let the pupils try subject. But the science to which we owe our to think out for themselves some hypothesis to means of measuring time, of locating places on the account for what they have seen, and not to give surface of the earth by longitude and latitude, of them the correct scientific explanation until they fixing the boundaries of countries and sections of have exhausted their own conjectures. For, it is country, of accurately mapping out coast-lines, not so much facts that we desire to communicate of navigating the ocean, of ascertaining the mag- as mental habits; and, by the process here recomnitude and exact figure of the globe which we in- mended, whatever facts are finally imparted, habit, and determining its relations to the uni- though they may be few, will be indelibly imverse, certainly should not be overlooked. Pri- pressed upon the memory. This process is, howmarily, astronomy is a science of observation. Its ever, strictly in accordance with the educational materials are observed facts; but it differs from axiom, that the pupil should be told nothing many other natural sciences in that the observed which he may be made to discover for himself; facts, far from explaining themselves, demand a to which may perhaps be added, that he should peculiar exercise of conception, judgment, and be told nothing until he has endeavored to disreason, in order to infer from them the truths cover it for himself, and has failed in the effort. which they obscurely indicate. Thus, when we (See SCIENCE TEACHING.) After this prelimiobserve the varying apparent diameters of the nary instruction, an elementary course in astronsun and moon, the phenomena of eclipses and omy would embrace the following topics artiles, the progressions, stations, and retrograda- ranged in the order of presentation: -(1) The tions of the planets, etc., we have advanced, how-earth-its form. magnitude, motions, etc., with the ever accurate our observations, but little toward phenomena connected with it, and arising from a solution of the mysteries involved in these ap- its relations to the sun, such as day and night. pearances. We must conceive how. under a general and the seasons; (2) The solar system-its general hypothesis of the structure of the solar system, arrangement, the bodies of which it is composed, these phenomena are caused, since the phenom-with their magnitudes, distances, periodic times, ena often seem to be at variance with the facts; the position of their orbits and axes, and their e. g. the apparent motions of the planets appear apparent motions; (3) The circles etc. of the to contradict the general truth, or law, of their sphere; as equator, equinoctial, ecliptic, merideastward orbital motion. ians, tropics, polar circles, longitude and latitude, both terrestrial and celestial, declination and right ascension, the horizon, vertical circles, altitude and azimuth, etc. If the preliminary instruction has been correct and thorough, these various tropics can be taught in such a manner as, at every point, to appeal to the learner's intelligence, and, not as a mass of arbitrary facts, encumbering his memory for a while, to drop out afterwards as useless lumber. For example, if we would lead his mind to a clear idea of the use of longitude and latitude on the surface of the earth, we ask him to locate, that is, to describe the location of, any point on the surface of the globe. He will soon be led to perceive that this cannot be done without some standards of reference; and thus the use of the equator and meridians will become obvious, and, in a similar manner, that of altitude and azimuth, in locating the positions of stars and planets in the visible heavens, or right ascension and declination, in fixing their places in the celestial sphere. No part of this science need be taught arbitrarily. Even the numerical facts, as distances, magnitudes, periods of revolution, etc., should, in part at least, be worked out, however rudely, for the student from the data of observation; or he should be required to work them out himself. after being taught the principles and methods involved. Thus, the teacher may begin with the diameter of the earth, and show how this has In teaching this subject, the order of investigation the analytic method, should be at first adopted, for two reasons: (1) because in this way we are able to impress upon the mind of the pupil clearer conceptions of fundamental facts, and (2) because he will thus form the habits of thought which are particularly needed in the study of this science. We should insist upon his observing for himself all the more obvious phenomena, and then stating, as fully and accurately as possible, the result of his observations. It is astonishing how many persons go through the world, filling the measure of a long life, without casting anything but an indifferent, uninquiring, and uninterested glance at the glories of the stellar firmament. So it is also with children, before their attention is attracted, and their interest aroused, to observe the wonders of the heavens. The teacher, therefore, should lead his pupils, by questioning them, to notice some of the most ordinary phenomena; as the rising and setting of the sun and the moon, the phases of the latter, the apparent diurnal revolution of the stars, the positions and apparent movements of the larger and more conspicuous planets among the stars, the ebb and flow of the tides, the solar and lunar eclipses, etc. Finding, from such questioning, that they have really been inattentive to what they might readily have observed, the pupils will strive to see these things for themselves, and will thus, in a been determined; then the distance of the sun from the earth, explaining in this connection the nature and use of parallax; then the linear diameter of the sun from its apparent diameter; then the sidereal year of the earth, and the sidereal periods of the planets from their observed synodic periods; and next the distances of the planets from an application of Kepler's third law, etc. In this way, the whole subject will be so woven together in the pupil's mind, that it will be impossible for him to forget its fundamental principles, however few of its facts of detail he may retain. After such a course, it will be a very simple matter to present for his study the other important topics comprehended in the general subject. The use of diagrams and apparatus should be constantly resorted to in giving the instruction here marked out; but great care should be observed to prevent the use of apparatus from superseding or obscuring the ideas obtained from the observation of nature itself. The student must come down to the apparatus from a clear conception of the actual phenomena, using the machine to apprehend the manner in which the phenomena occur. Very simple apparatus is much to be preferred to cumbrous and complicated machinery, -admirable, perhaps, as pieces of ingenious workmanship but of little value for the purpose of illustration. The student should, however, be thoroughly practiced in the use of the globes, as a very essential part of the training comprehended in this branch of instruction. The use of a telescope, of at least moderate power, is also a valuable means of augmenting both the interest and information of the student, especially in connection with the study of uranography, which is certainly one of the most useful as well as entertaining departments of astronomical science. In this part of the study, a good planisphere will prove a valuable adjunct. The religious aspects of the study should not be lost sight of in giving this instruction. The student should be constantly reminded that, in studying the phenomena and laws of the material universe, he is contemplating the works of an infinitely wise and beneficent Creator, who has wonderfully endowed us with faculties to behold the splendor of his works, and, in some degree, to conceive of their vastness. Says a distinguished German educator: "Astronomy is, more than any other science, valuable as a study for youth. None will seize so strongly and fully upon the youthful mind. It hardens the body, sharpens the senses, practices the memory, nourishes the fancy with the noblest images, develops the power of thinking, destroys all narrow-mindedness, and lays an immovable foundation for faith in God." ATHENEUM, or Athenæum (Gr. 'A7 vatov, a building dedicated to Athena, or Minerva, the tutelary goddess of Athens), was the name applied to a temple at Athens, in which poets and scholars used to meet and read their productions. At Rome, a celebrated institution of the same name was founded by the Emperor Hadrian, on ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, one of the political divisions into which Hellas proper was divided, is famous as the city in which Greek science and education attained the highest degree of perfection. The educational laws of Athens constitute a part of the legislation of Solon. (See SOLON.) They are, in some respects, in direct opposition to the principles which regulated public education at Sparta. (See SPARTA.) While the Spartans almost exclusively aimed at developing the highest perfection of the body, at Athens a cultivated mind was regarded as the highest product of education. All the Athenian children, rich and poor, had to attend school and to learn how to read; and tardiness in attending school as well as truancy was punished by a fine. Pupils were not admitted to school before their seventh, nor after their tenth year of age. After attending school for several years, poor children were required to be employed in agriculture, commerce, or some trade; while the children of wealthy parents devoted themselves to music, hunting, philosophy, or similar occupations. If a father neglected to have his son instructed, the son was not bound to support him in his old age. The elementary schools had at first one, subsequently two teachers, the grammatist, who taught reading and writing (ra ypáμμara), and the critic, who read the classics with the children, explained to them the poets, and heard them recite poems. Homer's works were in almost every school; and, it is said, Alcibiades, on one occasion, boxed his teacher's ears because he did not find a copy of Homer in his school. The second book of the Iliad, which enumerates the tribes and princes who followed Agamemnon to the Trojan war, and the allies of the Trojans, supplied the outline of the instruction in geography, history, and genealogy. The grammatist first taught the children the alphabet, the formation of letters into words, and reading; directing them to pay special attention to long and short syllables, to correct accentuation, and to euphonious pronunciation. When they had acquired a sufficient knowledge of reading, instruction in writing began, embracing within its scope both tachygraphy (short-hand writing) and calligraphy. The use of signs for abridgments was known to the Athenian short-hand writers. letters were drawn by a stylus (a sharp-pointed iron instrument) on wax tablets, and copied by the children. The use of ink was also known. It was prepared of soot and gum, and applied to parchment, linen, or Egyptian paper (papyrus), by means of a brush or tube. All the children were required to learn music and to play on The |