Up to this date, New Mexico had derived all her supplies from the interior of Mexico by the way of Santa Cruz, but at such exorbitant prices, that common cotton-cloth sold as high as two and three dollars per yard.

In his next expedition, Captain Becknell, in his anxiety to avoid the circuitous route by the Upper Arkansas which he had first taken, attempted a more direct course across the pathless desert, with but little suspicion of the terrible trials which awaited them on the arid plains. They were soon unable to procure any water; and after two days' march, the sufferings of both men and beasts had driven them almost to distraction. Frantic with despair, with a horrible death staring them in the face, they scattered about the country in the vain search for water, and like the travelers in the great deserts of the East, often led astray by the deceptive glimmer of the mirage or false ponds. Unknown to them, they were near the banks of the Cimarron, but would, notwithstanding, have perished, had they not providentially met with and killed a buffalo fresh from the river's side, whose stomach was distended with

water.

The success of Becknell and Glenn soon induced numerous other expeditions, and it is from this period (1822) that the virtual commencement of the Santa Fe trade may be dated. In 1824, ₪ company of eighty Missouri traders first introduced wagons in these expeditions. The town of Franklin was originally the place of outfit for the expeditions, but eventually Independence, on the western border of Missouri, became the prominent point of embarkation for every part of the great Western and Northern "prairie oecan," though Van Buren, in Arkansas, has some advantage as a starting point for New Mexico.

Among the concourse at this starting point, pale-faced invalids were frequently met with, who joined the caravans for the sake of health. Most chronic diseases, particularly liver complaints, dyspepsias, and similar affections, are often radically cured by a tour on the prairies, owing no doubt to the peculiarities of diet, regular exercise, and the purity of the atmosphere.

The caravans did not organize until they reached Council Grove, a beautifully wooded locality, five hundred and twenty-five miles from Santa Fe, and one hundred and fifty miles in advance of Independence. This is the most northern limit of the wanderings of the Camanches.

It derived its name from the practice among the traders of assembling there for the appointment of officers, and the establishment of rules and regulations to govern their march through the dangerous country south of it. They first elected a commanderin-chief. His duty was to appoint subordinate leaders, and to divide the owners and men into watches, and to assign them their several hours of duty in guarding the camp during the remainder of their perilous journey. He also divided the caravan into two parts, each of which formed a column when on march. In these

lines, he assigned each team the place in which it must always be found. Having arranged these several matters, the council broke up; and the commander, with the guard on duty, moved off in advance to select the track, and anticipate approaching danger. After this guard, the head teams of each column led off about thirty feet apart, and the others followed in regular lines; rising and dipping gloriously; with frequently as many as two hundred men, one hundred wagons, with near half a million in goods; eight hundred mules and oxen. Shoutings and whippings, and whistlings and cheerings, were all there; and amidst them all, the hardy Yankees moved happily onward.

Several objects were gained by this arrangement of the wagons. If they were attacked on the march by the Camanche cavalry, or other foes, the leading teams filed to the right and left, and closed the front; and the hindermost, by a similar movement, closed the rear; and thus they formed an oblong rampart of wagons laden with cotton-goods, that effectually shielded teams and men from the small arms of the Indians. The same arrangement was made when they halted at night.

Within the area thus formed were put, after they were fed, many of the most valuable horses and oxen. The remainder of the animals were "staked;" that is, tied to stakes, at the distance of twenty or thirty yards around the line. The ropes by which they were fastened, were from thirty to forty feet in length; and the stakes to which they were attached, were carefully driven to such distances apart as prevented their being entangled one with another.

Among these animals the guard on duty was stationed, standing motionless near them, or crouching so as to discover every moving spot upon the horizon of night. The reasons assigned for this were, that a guard in motion would be discovered and fired upon by the cautious savage before his presence could be known; and farther, that it was impossible to discern the approach of an Indian creeping among the grass in the dark, unless the eye of the observer be so close to the ground as to bring the whole surface lying within the range of vision between it and the line of light around the lower edge of the horizon.

If the camp was attacked, the guard fired and retreated to the wagons. The whole body then took positions for defense; at one time sallying out to rescue their animals from the grasp of the Indians, and at another concealed behind their wagons, loading and firing upon their intruders with all possible skill and rapidity. At an early day, when the Santa Fe traders traveled in small parties, they were frequently attacked by the wild prairie Indians. A terrible calamity befell a small party of American traders, in the winter of 1832-3, on their way home from Santa Fe. The party consisted of twelve men, chiefly citizens of Missouri. Their baggage and about ten thousand dollars in specie were packed upon mules. They took the route of the Canadian River, fearing

to venture on the northern prairies at that season of the year. Having left Santa Fe in December, they had proceeded without accident thus far, when a large body of Camanches and Kiawas were seen advancing toward them. Being well acquainted with the treacherous and pusillanimous disposition of those races, the traders prepared at once for defense; but the savages having made a halt at some distance, began to approach one by one, or in small parties, making a great show of friendship all the while, until most of them had collected on the spot. Finding themselves surrounded in every direction, the travelers now began to move on, in hopes of getting rid of the intruders; but the latter were equally ready for the start; and mounting their horses, kept jogging on in the same direction. The first act of hostility perpetrated by the Indians proved fatal to one of the American traders named Pratt, who was shot dead while attempting to secure two mules which had become separated from the rest. Upon this, the companions of the slain man immediately dismounted and commenced a fire upon the Indians, which was warmly returned, whereby another man of the name of Mitchell was killed.

By this time the traders had taken off their packs and piled them around for protection; and now falling to work with their hands, they very soon scratched out a trench deep enough to protect them from the shot of the enemy. The latter made several desperate charges, but they seemed too careful of their own personal safety, notwithstanding the enormous superiority of their numbers, to venture too near the rifles of the Americans. In a few hours all the animals of the traders were either killed or wounded, but no personal damage was done to the remaining ten men, with the exception of a wound in the thigh received by one, which was not at the time considered dangerous.

During the siege, the Americans were in great danger of perishing from thirst, as the Indians had complete command of all the water within reach. Starvation was not so much to be dreaded; because, in cases of necessity, they could live on the flesh of their slain animals, some of which lay stretched close around them. After being pent up for thirty-six hours in this horrible hole, during which time they had seldom ventured to raise their heads above the surface without being shot at, they resolved to make a bold sortie in the night, as any death was preferable to the fate which awaited them there. As there was not an animal left that was at all in condition to travel, the proprietors of the money gave permission to all to take and appropriate to themselves whatever amount each man could safely undertake to carry. In this way a few hundred dollars were started with, of which, however, but little ever reached the United States. The remainder was buried deep in the sand, in hopes that it might escape the cupidity of the savages; but to very little purpose, for they were afterward seen by some Mexican traders making a great display of specie, which was without doubt taken from this unfortunate cache.

With every prospect of being discovered, overtaken, and butchered, but resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible, they at last emerged from their hiding-place, and moved on silently and slowly until they found themselves beyond the purlieus of the Indian camps. Often did they look back in the direction where from three to five hundred savages were supposed to watch their movements, but, much to their astonishment, no one appeared to be in pursuit. The Indians believing, no doubt, that the property of the traders would come into their hands, and having no amateur predilection for taking scalps at the risk of losing their own, appeared willing enough to let the spoliated adventurers depart without further molestation..

The destitute travelers having run themselves short of provisions, and being no longer able to kill game for want of materials to load their rifles with, they were very soon reduced to the necessity of sustaining life upon roots and the tender bark of trees. After traveling for several days in this desperate condition, with lacerated feet and utter prostration of mind and body, they began to disagree among themselves about the route to be pursued, and eventually separated into two distinct parties. Five of these unhappy men steered a westward course, and after a succession of sufferings and privations, which almost surpassed belief, they reached the settlements of the Creek Indians, near the Arkansas River, where they were treated with great kindness and hospitality. The other five wandered about in the greatest state of distress and bewilderment, and only two finally succeeded in getting out of the mazes of the wilderness. Among those who were abandoned to their fate and left to perish thus miserably, was a Mr. Schenck, the same individual who had been shot in the thigh; a gentleman of talent and excellent family connections, from Ohio.

So repeated and daring were the outrages committed upon the traders, that they were obliged to petition government for large escorts of United States troops, which were granted. The Indians appeared resolved, if possible, to check all intercourse of the whites upon the prairies, and had it not been for the presence of the troops, would have succeeded in their object.

The arrival of a caravan at Santa Fe, which was usually ten weeks on the route, produced considerable bustle and excitement among the natives, and at once changed the aspect of the place.. Men and boys flocked around to see the new comers, while crowds of leperos hung about watching opportunities to pilfer. The wagons were discharged at the custom-house, the duties paid upon the goods generally averaging about one hundred per cent. on the home cost. In a few days the goods were discharged, and then, instead of the idleness and stagnation which the streets of Santa Fe usually exhibited, there were all the bustle, noise, and activity of a market town crowded by numerous country dealers, who re sorted to the capital on these occasions.

The outward journeys of the caravans were usually made in the spring and early part of summer-the return trips in the autumn. Eventually, half the entire imports by the Missouri caravans were sent to Chihuahua (pronounced She-waw-waw) from Santa Fe. The Santa Fe trade continued to increase until the year 1843, when the amount of merchandise, thus transported, amounted to $450,000, which was conveyed by two hundred and thirty wagons. While the trade increased, the prices decreased, and taking assortments round, one hundred per cent. on the home cost, was generally considered excellent sales.

In 1843, the Santa Fe trade was, for a time, closed by Santa Anna, in consequence of the attacks of the Texans upon the caravans. Keeping beyond the territory of the United States, the right of the Texans to harass the commerce of the Mexicans will hardly be denied, as they were at open war, yet they were aware that but a small part of the traders were Mexicans, and this should have had a restraining influence upon them.

THE BLACK HAWK WAR.

In the year 1804, Gen. Harrison made a treaty with the Sacs and Foxes-two tribes united as one- by which they ceded the lands east of the Mississippi to the United States; but to these lands they had no original right, even in the Indian sense, as they were intruders on the country of the Santeaurs and Iowas. By this treaty they were permitted to reside and hunt upon these lands until sold for settlement by government.

This treaty was re-confirmed by the Indians in the years 1815 and 1816. Black Hawk, who was never a chief, but merely an Indian brave, collected a few disaffected spirits, and refusing to attend the negotiations of 1816, went to Canada, proclaimed himself and party British, and received presents from them.

The treaty of 1804 was again ratified in 1822, by the Sacs and Foxes, in "full council, at Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, on the Mississippi. In 1825, another treaty was held at Prairie du Chien, with the Indians, by William Clarke and Lewis Cass, for the purpose of bringing about a peace between the Sacs and Foxes, the Chippeways, and the Iowas on the one hand, and the Sioux or Dacotahs on the other. Hostilities continuing, the United States, in 1827, interfered between the contending tribes. This offended the Indians, who thereupon murdered two whites in the vicinity of Prairie du Chien, and attacked two boats on the Mississippi, conveying supplies to Fort Snelling, and killed and wounded several of the crews. Upon this, Gen. Atkinson marched into the Winnebago country, and made prisoners of Red Bird and six others, who were imprisoned at Prairie du Chien. A part of those arrested were convicted on trial, and in December of the following