Mexicans. Notwithstanding their wandering habits, they culti vate the different grains and vegetables, and possess extensive and superior herds of horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and goats.

The Apaches are mainly west of the Rio del Norte, and are the most powerful and vagrant of the Indian tribes of Northern Mexico, and number, it is estimated, fifteen thousand souls, of whom two thousand are warriors. They cultivate and manufacture nothing, and appear to depend entirely upon pillage for subsistence. The depredations of the Apaches have been of so long a duration that beyond the immediate vicinity of the towns, the whole country, from New Mexico to the borders of Durango, is almost entirely depopulated. The Eutaws, or Yutas, are scattered from the north of New Mexico to the borders of Snake River and Rio Colorado, and are estimated at ten thousand souls. These various tribes, particularly the Apaches, are the terror of the Mexicans. They are considered by them as a very brave people, but not equal in this respect to the Camanches; while the latter, who number about twenty thousand, are perfect poltroons when compared with the Shawanees, Wyandots, Seminoles, and the rest of our border tribes.

The New Mexicans are very similar to the rest of the Spanish race all over Mexico, so often described by travelers. The higher classes conform themselves more to American and European fashions; the men of the lower classes are faithful to their serapes or colored blankets, and to their wide trowsers, ornamented with glittering buttons, and which are split from hip to ankle to display their white cotton drawers. The females of all classes are more than justified in not giving up their coquettish reboso, a small shawl drawn over the head. Both sexes enjoy the cigarrito, or paper cigar, hold their siesta after dinner, and amuse themselves in the evening with monte or fandangoes. Their dances are very graceful, and generally a combination of quadrille and waltz. The males are generally ill-featured, while the females are often quite handsome. Another striking singularity is the wide differ

ence in the character of the two sexes. While the men have often been censured for their indolence, mendacity, treachery, and cruelty, the women are active, affectionate and open-hearted. Though generally not initiated in the art of reading and writing, the females possess, nevertheless, a strong common sense and a natural sympathy for every suffering being, be it friend or foe, which compensates them in some degree for the want of a refined education.

OREGON.

THE western coasts of North America were first partially explored by the Spaniards in the century succeeding the discovery of America. Their explorations were later followed by the English. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake ranged this coast from thirty-eight to

forty-eight degrees. This region was called by the English New Albion. The name Oregon is from Oregano, the Spanish name for wild marjoram; and it is from this word, or some other similar, that its name is supposed to have arisen. But little was known of even its coast up to the latter part of the last century. Immediately after the last voyage of the renowned navigator, Captain Cook, the immense quantities of sea otter, beaver, and other valuable furs to be obtained on the northwest coast of America, and the enormous prices which they would bring in China, was communicated to civilized nations, and created as much excitement as the discovery of a new gold region. A large number of people rushed at once into this lucrative traffic, so that in the year 1792, it is said, there were twenty-one vessels under different flags, but principally American, plying along the coast of Oregon, and trading with the natives.

Up to this period, nothing was positively known of the Columbia River, the greatest stream which enters the Pacific from America. The Spanish navigator, Heceta, in August, 1776, first saw the opening through which its waters discharge into the ocean, and it was accordingly marked on the Spanish charts as the mouth of the River San Roque. In July, 1788, Lieutenant Meares, of the British Navy, examined it, and left with the conviction that no river was there; yet this was the claim which the British set up to possession by the right of discovery. Vancouver, another British navigator who was exploring the coast in 1792, confirmed this opinion. He stated that from Cape Mendocino, in California, to the Straits of Fuca, the southern boundary of Vancouver's Island, there was not a single harbor, "the whole coast forming one compact and nearly straight barrier against the sea."

On the 7th of May, 1792, Captain Robert Gray, of the ship Columbia, of Boston, discovered and entered the river, which he named from his vessel. He was, in reality, the first person who established the fact of the existence of this great river, and this gave to the United States the right to the country drained by its waters by the virtue of discovery.

In the autumn of the year 1792, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, with an exploring party, left Fort Chippewayan, on Athabasca Lake, midway between Hudson's Bay and the Pacific, in the high northern latitude of fifty-nine degrees, and reached the Pacific Ocean in July, 1793, in latitude fifty-two degrees twenty minutes, being thus the first white man who ever crossed the American continent in its widest part. His route appears to have been some distance north of what is now the northern boundary of Oregon. In 1804-5, Lewis and Clarke explored the country from the mouth of the Missouri to that of the Columbia. This exploration of the Columbia, the first ever made, constituted another ground of the claim of the United States to the country. In 1806, the British Northwest Fur Company established a trading-post on Fraser's Lake, in latitude fifty-four degrees, which was the first settlement of any kind made

by British subjects west of the Rocky Mountains. Other posts were established by them soon after in that region, to which was then given the name of New Caledonia.

In 1808, the Missouri Fur Company, through their agent, Mr. Henry, established a trading-post on Lewis River, a branch of the Columbia, which was the first establishment of civilized people in what is now Oregon. An attempt was made that year by Captain Smith, of the Albatross, of Boston, to found a trading-post on the south bank of the Columbia, forty miles from its mouth. It was abandoned the same season, and that of Mr. Henry in 1810.

In the year 1810, John Jacob Astor, a German merchant of New York, who had accumulated an immense fortune by commerce in the Pacific and China, formed the Pacific Fur Company. His first objects were to concentrate in the company, the fur-trade in the unsettled parts of America, and also the supply of merchandise for the Russian fur-trading establishments in the North Pacific. For these purposes, posts were to be established on the Missouri and Columbia and vicinity. These posts were to be supplied with the merchandise required for trading by ships from the Atlantic coast, or across the country by the way of the Missouri. A factory or depot was to be founded on the Pacific, for receiving this merchandise, and distributing it to the different posts, and for receiving in turn furs from them, which were to be sent from thence to Canton. Vessels were also to be sent from the United States to the factory with merchandise to be traded for furs, which would then be sent to Canton, and there exchanged for teas, silks, etc., to be in turn distributed in Europe and America.

This stupendous enterprise at the time appeared practicable. The only party from whom any rivalry could be expected, was the British Northwest Company, and their means were far inferior to those of Astor. From motives of policy, he offered them one-third interest, which they declined, secretly intending to forestall him. Having matured his scheme, Mr. Astor engaged partners, clerks, and voyageurs, the majority of whom were Scotchmen and Canadians, previously in the service of the Northwest Company. Wilson P. Hunt of New Jersey, was chosen the chief agent of the operations in Western America.

In September, 1810, the ship Tonquin, Captain Thorn, left New York for the mouth of the Columbia with four of the partners, M'Kay, M'Dougal, and David and Robert Stuart, all British subjects, with clerks, voyageurs, and mechanics. In January, 1811, the second detachment, with Hunt, M'Clellan, M'Kenzie, and Crooks, also left New York to go overland by the Missouri to the same point, and in October, 1811, the ship Beaver, Capt. Sowles, with several clerks and attaches, left New York for the North Pacific. Prior to these, in 1809, Mr. Astor had dispatched the Enterprise, Captain Ebberts, to make observations at the Russian settlements, and to prepare the way for settlements in Oregon. He also, in 1811, sent an agent to St. Petersburg, who obtained

from the Russian American Fur Company the monopoly of supply-. ing their posts in the North Pacific with merchandise, and receiving furs in exchange.

In March, 1811, the Tonquin arrived at the Columbia, and soon after they commenced erecting on the south bank, a few miles inland, their factory or depot building: this place they named Astoria. In June, the Tonquin, with M'Kay, sailed north to make arrangements for trading with the Russians. In July, the Astorians were surprised by the appearance of a party of the Northwest Company, under Mr. Thompson, who had come overland from Canada to forestall them in the occupation of the mouth of the Columbia; but had been delayed too late for this purpose, in seeking a passage through the Rocky Mountains, and had been obliged to winter there. Mr. Thompson was accompanied on his return by David Stuart, who founded the trading-post called Okonogan.

In the beginning of the next year (1812), the detachment of Hunt came into Astoria in parties, and in a wretched condition. They had been over a year in coming from St. Louis; had undergone extreme suffering from hunger, thirst, and cold in their wanderings that winter, through the dreary wilderness of snow-clad mountains, from which, and other causes, numbers of them perished. In May, 1812, the Beaver, bringing the third detachment, under Mr. Clarke, arrived at Astoria. They brought a letter which had been left at the Sandwich Islands by Captain Ebberts, of the Enterprise, containing the sad intelligence that the Tonquin and her crew had been destroyed by the savages, near the Straits of Fuca, the June preceding.

In August, Mr. Hunt, leaving Astoria in the charge of M'Dougal, embarked in the Beaver to trade with the Russian posts, which was to have been done by the Tonquin. He was successful, and effected a highly advantageous arrangement at Sitka with Baranof, Governor of Russian America; took in a rich cargo of furs, and dispatched the vessel to Canton, via the Sandwich Islands, where he in person remained, and in 1814, he returned to Astoria in the Peddler, which he had chartered, and found that Astoria was in the hands of the Northwest Company.

When Hunt left in the Beaver, a party was dispatched, which established a trading post on the Spokan. Messrs. Crooks, M'Clellan, and Robert Stuart about this time set out and crossed overland to New York, with an account of what had been done. The trade was in the meantime very prosperous, and a large quantity of furs had been collected at Astoria.

In January, 1813, the Astorians learned from a trading vessel that a war had broken out with England. A short time after, M Tavish and Laroque, partners of the Northwest Company, arrived at Astoria; M'Dougal and M'Kenzie (both Scotchmen). were the only partners there, and they unwisely agreed to dissolve the company in July. Messrs. Stuart and Clarke, at the Okonogan and Spokan Posts, opposed this; but it was finally agreed that if

assistance did not soon arrive from the United States, they would abandon the enterprise.

M'Tavish and his followers of the Northwest Company again visited Astoria, where they expected to meet the Isaac Todd, an armed ship from London, which had orders "to take and destroy everything American on the northwest coast." Notwithstanding they were hospitably received, and held private conferences with M'Dougal and M'Kenzie, the result of which was that they sold out the establishment, furs, etc., of the Pacific Company in the country to the Northwest Company, for about $58,000. That company were thus enabled to establish themselves in the country.

Thus ended the Astoria enterprise. Had the directing partners on the Columbia been Americans instead of foreigners, it is believed that they would, notwithstanding the war, have withstood all their difficulties. The sale was considered disgraceful, and the conduct of M'Dougal and M'Kenzie in that sale and subsequently was such as to authorize suspicions against their motives; yet they could not have been expected to engage in hostilities against their countrymen and old friends.

The name of Astoria was changed by the British to that of Fort George. From 1813 to 1823, few, if any, American citizens entered the countries west of the Rocky Mountains. Nearly all the trade of the Upper Mississippi and Missouri was carried on by the Old North American Fur Company, of which Astor was the head; and by the Columbia Fur Company formed in 1822, composed mainly of persons who had been in the service of the Northwest Company, and were dissatisfied with it. The Columbia Company established posts on the upper waters of the Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Yellow Stone, which were transferred, in 1826, to the North American Company on the junction of the two bodies. About this time the overland trade with Santa Fe commenced, caravans passing regularly every summer between St. Louis and that place. In 1824, Ashley, of St. Louis, re-established commercial communications with the countries west of the Rocky Mountains, and built a trading-post on Ashley's Lake, in Utah.

These active proceedings of the Missouri Fur Traders stimulated the North American Fur Company to send their agents and attaches beyond the Rocky Mountains, although they built no posts. In 1827, Mr. Pilcher, of Missouri, went through the South Pass with forty-five men, and wintered on the headwaters of the Colorado, in what is now the northeast part of Utah. The next year he proceeded northwardly along the base of the Rocky Mountains to near latitude forty-seven degrees. There he remained until the spring of 1829, when he descended Clarke River to Fort Colville, then recently established at the falls by the Hudson's Bay Company, which had a few years previous absorbed and united the interests of the Northwest Company. He returned to the United States through the long and circuitous far northward route of the