rogative, of great importance, and which were laid down in the Old Testament, with great carnestness, simplicity, and force of language.

The other important epochs of the Jewish history are pretty well known to most readers. They include the monarchical period from the first king, to the revolt of the twelve tribes; from the revolt of the twelve tribes, to the Babylonian captivity; the return of the Hebrews to Palestine to the days of Alexander; and from this period till the partition of the empire under Antiochus Epiphanes; and from thence to the appearance of our Saviour. who set

christiang?

A great deal of matter, of the highest interest, might here be brought forward, relative to the several general or fundamental maxims of Jewish polity touching the laws of property, the nature of civil and penal legislation, and those maxims of justice and expediency, on which the rights and liberties of the great mass of the people rested. These several topics, for reasons already stated, must, however, be passed over at the present moment. We shall barely remark in conclusion, that the political literature of the Old Testament contains truths of such a character as to be recognisable by the meanest capacity, as well as by minds of the most comprehensive and profound cast. These truths are like a great river, small and narrow at its source, but gradually widening and deepening as it proceeds to the ocean; while in its progress it spreads life and enjoyment to the surrounding districts. Nothing can be more expressive of the innate value of these truths than to witness the most highly gifted of philosophers of all ages, bearing their testimony to the important and vital principles involved in these general political

maxims. These truths may be slighted by the superficial, sneered at by the sceptical, or neglected by the careless; but they must ever prove the only real and prolific seeds of genuine progress, and human happiness.*

We shall make a few remarks on the history of the Jewish Code as a written production, and as an instrument of education in the Jewish schools and seminaries. The Corpus Juris Judaici, like many other codes of laws in European countries, is composed of two parts; the "Unwritten," or "Oral," or "Common Law;" and the "Written," or "Statute Law." There is this difference between the Jewish Code, and several other modern systems of legal rules, that the written law of the Jews preceded the "oral," or "common law:" whereas, in England especially, the "written," is subsequent to the "common law." The Hebrew code is that which is contained in the Pentateuch; and, according to Jurists, is divided into six hundred and thirteen precepts; three hundred and sixty-five of which are termed "Negative precepts," because they prohibit that which is unjust or wrong; and the remaining two hundred and forty-eight, are "Affirmative precepts," as they command that which is requisite to be performed.

But it was found among the Jews, as well as in every other country placed under the influence of progressive institutions, that the general or fixed laws were inadequate to meet the justice and necessity of all cases between man and man; and in consequence of this, there came to be supplemental or explanatory

* See Heeren, Ideen über die Politik; Michaelis Spicil. Geogr. Hebr.; Shuckford's Connexion of Sacred and Profane History; Pocock's History of Arabia; Herbelot Bibl. Orient.; Silberschlag, Chrolagogieder Welt.; Gatterer, Weltgeschischte.

laws, which increased, from time to time, till they became more numerous than the original code itself. These supplemental regulations were called, "The Constitutions of the Prophets, and of the Wise-men;" "The decrees of the Synedrim;" "The Interpretations of the Doctors;" and there were also what were termed the "Constitutions of Moses," of supreme authority, because they were received from the Deity upon Mount Sinai.

During the forty years that Moses survived the promulgation of the law from Mount Sinai, he took upon himself the office of teaching the Israelitish nation how that law was to be interpreted and applied. After his death, this power was transmitted to Joshua; from Joshua to the elders who succeeded him; and from them to the prophets; and all these various "Decisions," "Interpretations," and "Constitutions," were retained in the memories of the Jewish people, and became invested with all the sacredness and power of the fundamental rules of law themselves. And it may be remarked, in passing, that the English law bears a striking resemblance to this; for the "common law" is a collection of unwritten maxims and customs handed down to posterity by "tradition, use, and experience;" and this fact is the foundation of the remark of Spelman, "Leges sola memoria et usu retinebant."

During the exile of the Babylonish captivity, these traditionary and legal maxims, were in a great measure obliterated from the memories of the people. After their return to their own land, it was decreed that a Great Synagogue should be called together, consisting of one hundred and twenty of the most learned and able men of the nation, to consider of the best means of

restoring, and for the future preserving the traditions. These were, by this means, collected and methodised.

After the dissolution of this Great Synagogue, there was appointed what was called the "Sessions of the Wise-men;" and this institution continued to augment the number of the explanatory or supplementary laws, until the first total extinction of the Temple took place, when the spirit of prophesy ceased among the people. There was then no infallible judge to resolve legal and constitutional doubts and difficulties.

In this state of things, the people had recourse to individual judgments, from men of greater learning and talents; such as Simeon the just, Hillel, Gamaliel, and others, whose skill in the Mosaic law was both profound and accurate. In such cases their respective decisions were added to the common code; and by the sect of the Pharisees, whose veneration for the traditions was carried to a great length, these various individual "interpretations," were most reverentially and strictly observed. This was the general state of the Jewish code up to the time of our Saviour's

appearance.

CHAPTER II.

BRIEF REMARKS ON THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE EGYPTIAN STATES, AND ON THE LEGISLATION OF CARTHAGE.

ACCORDING to the General account of historians, Menes was the first King of Egypt. His reign is supposed to have commenced about the second century after the Deluge.

The kingly office in Egypt was hereditary. Diodorus maintains that the kings of this nation ruled with great wisdom and moderation; and were by no means so prone to exercise absolute power as some other eastern governments. No slave or foreigner was admitted to the personal service of the Prince; and he was obliged rigidly to conform to certain regulations imposed upon him by the laws; to follow no luxurious or expensive modes of living; to eat the plainest food; and only in such quantities and of such descriptions as were prescribed for him.

There were thirty judges appointed for the administration of justice, who were chosen out of the principal cities in the kingdom; and who were also to be the most renowned for their political wisdom, honesty, and humanity. Certain revenues were set aside for their support during the season of public duty; with a view