answer whatever complaints may be brought against them.

In addition to these several codes, we must also mention the Lombard Laws, which were first reduced to writing by Rotharis, in the middle of the eighth century. This legal edict contains 386 laws; and some additions were afterwards made to it by his successors Grimwald, Luitprand, Rachis, and Astolpho. This code became very extensively known; and when compared with the barbaric systems, it has always maintained a decided preference, both for the perspicuity of its arrangements, and the justice and wisdom of its enactments. These laws being promulgated and abridged at the general assemblies and diets, there was naturally breathed into them, a liberal and popular spirit; and matters bearing on legislative principles of vital import, were considered with that due care and deliberation befitting their national importance.

CHAPTER VIII.

MISCELLANEOUS POLITICAL WRITERS, FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA, TO THE END OF THE NINTH CENTURY.

OUR object in this chapter is chiefly to notice some political writings which are neither directly connected with theological doctrines and discussions, nor with the general cultivation of the scholastic philosophy as a whole. These writings, though scanty, are nevertheless interesting, as connecting links in the progressive cultivation of political literature, as well as from the value of many of the abstract principles they contain, on the nature and origin of governments, and on constitutional polity generally.

In the times of our Saviour, and indeed both before and after, there were speculative and philosophical sects in the east who paid marked attention to political doctrines, and propounded theories of government on certain views of the nature of the social contract. The Essenes were one of these sects. Philo, Josephus, and Pliny, give some details of their opinions on political and civil institutions. The Essenes were smitten with a love of Arcadian simplicity and innocency of life. As a grand means of fulfilling this day-dream, they maintained the doctrine of a perfect community of

POLITICAL WRITERS, FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA, &c. 199

goods. They had no towns, but were scattered throughout the entire land of Judea; and when they wandered from place to place, were supported by the voluntary and gratuitous contributions of the faithful of the community. They never looked beyond the possession of the mere necessaries of life. The amassing of wealth they thought criminal, and so likewise were their views on war. Regal government they considered a direct and flagrant usurpation; and trade and commerce they held to be the great incentives to avarice, luxury, and degeneracy of character. All men were free and equal, and were united by the ties of a common nature and a sympathetic affection. Servitude and slavery were both abhorrent to their views. Members living in any particular locality assembled under one roof, and, like the inhabitants of Sparta and Crete, had their food in common. The Essenes practised the utmost simplicity in dress, and were punctiliously pious and grave in their deportment. Marriage was not considered creditable; and their numbers were recruited from converts, and the adoption of children, who were carefully instructed in their own peculiar opinions and usages. On this point of marriage, there were, however, differences among them; some considering it both lawful, and necessary. subject of education generally was in their eyes of great importance. Their system of tuition was confined chiefly to the strengthening and invigorating of the body by exercise and proper diet, and to the cultivation of the moral sentiments and affections. Philo tells us that "they formed themselves to sanctity, to justice, to domestic economy, and to social duties, by regulating themselves upon three principles which con

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tained all their doctrines ;-Love of God, love of virtue, love of mankind. Their love of God proved itself by their purity of life, by their chastity, and by the anxiety which they displayed to fulfil all their relative duties to the Deity. Their love of virtue displayed itself sufficiently in their contempt of wealth, of pleasure, of vain glory, and also in their patience, in their frugality, in their temperance, in their simplicity, and in their respect for the laws; while their love to their neighbours they proved by their benevolence, their equity, their charity, and by a system of community in which there was no interest to be covetous."

ONOSANDER, a Greek writer, who flourished about the middle of the first century, wrote several commentaries on the political works of Plato. These have not come down to our time. They are reported, however, to have been all labours of considerable merit.

PHILO THE JEW. This author flourished in the first century of the Christian era. He was the author of several works; but those which relate to the laws of Moses, are the only ones we need here allude to. These are divided into several books; but the general scope of the author's political ideas is, that the laws of Moses, in all their general and fundamental attributes and characters, are the only sound and true ones; and for this grand and paramount reason, that they perfectly harmonize with the moral and religious nature of man, and their observance is attended with the most happy consequences to himself, and his fellow-men.

On the mode of choosing a King, Philo makes some curious remarks, for the times in which he lived. "Some have desired," says he, "that Princes should

be established by lot, and by the collection of ballots, and have introduced this form and method of election, which is in no way profitable to the people, inasmuch as ballot shows good luck rather than virtue. Many have arrived, by this means, at authorities of which they were totally unworthy-rascals, whom a true Prince would reject and refuse to own as his subjects; for, noblemen of high honour will not take into their service all the serfs that are born in their houses, nor all those they have bought; but those only that are obedient and ready to execute their will. The rest who are obstinate and incorrigible, whom they cannot bring under discipline, they sell by auction in troops, as unworthy of a gentleman's service. It is not, therefore, fitting to constitute as lords of cities and nations, those who have got possession of the government by lot or ballot, which is a deceitful and slippery thing, and dependent upon inconstant fortune. When the question is the cure of the invalid, lot is not spoken of; and physicians are not chosen by lot, but are approved by experience. So when we wish to make a prosperous and happy voyage by sea, the crew do not select a pilot by lot, and send him immediately to the helm, for fear, lest by his ignorance and rashness, he should cause them shipwreck, even in calm and peaceful weather, and thus destroy the lives of all on board. But he is chosen who is known to have learned studiously, from his youth, the art of piloting vessels; who has often made voyages, and has traversed the majority of seas; who has sounded the depths and shallows, and is acquainted with the various ports and havens. It is even so in the government of great states, and the