short space of time, he so successfully worked on the feelings of the principal sovereigns of Europe, as to induce them to equip and send an army to Palestine amounting to upwards of two hundred thousand men.

This powerful armament was after a few years entirely destroyed. For upwards of two hundred years, Europe kept sending troops, some by sea, and some by land, to the scene of warfare; but in the year 1291, the crusading power was entirely expelled from Asia; after a series of conflicts and disasters, which history alone is competent to detail.

The influence of the crusades on the political sentiment of Europe, may be variously estimated, according to the general tenor of the philosophical and religious opinions of authors. These greatly modify the judgment of all men, but especially that of party writers, and politicians. It is not, however, by an estimation of the abstract character of such gigantic enterprises as these of the crusades, that we are placed in a fit position to form correct ideas of their influence on general opinion, but by taking into consideration the several minute and varied circumstances that flow from them, and which act and re-act on human conduct and institutions, in a thousand unperceived modes and degrees. It is often by the operation of such slow and imperceptible causes that great national objects are obtained and matured.

The extension of liberal and enlightened principles of commercial intercourse and policy, has been allowed by most writers, as an acknowledged and unequivocal result of these crusades to the Holy Land. The reduction of the Greek Empire in the first instance, and its re-establishment in 1261, in the second, were

both highly instrumental in the extension of international communication, and of promoting the interests of general commerce. Many interesting Provinces and Islands in the Eastern section of Europe were conferred on valiant chieftains who had signalized themselves in the Holy Wars; and these colonies were often turned to good account in the promotion and extension of knowledge, both political and artistic.

Mutual intercourse is an element in the full development and progress of society, of immense value. A knowledge of our common nature, in all its diversified aspects, is reforming, interesting, and conciliatory. The more that political relations of kingdom with kingdom are studied, the more do mutual ties on all sides. multiply and bind together. The Crusades, therefore, viewed in this light, were decidedly improving to the permanent interests and consolidation of political literature. They enlarged the intellectual vision of mankind, and displayed and demonstrated the universal application and value of many of the most general and influential principles of political science.

In breaking down the feudal system, already noticed, the Crusades were decidedly serviceable. This effect became a powerful cause in giving increased power to the great body of the people in every country, and extending opinions and sentiments favourable to political liberty and happiness.

On the influence of the Crusades, M. Guizot makes the following remarks. "The principal effect, then, of the Crusades was a great step towards the emancipation of the mind, a great progress towards enlarged and liberal ideas. Though begun under the name and influence of religious belief, the Crusades deprived reli

gious ideas, I should not say of their legitimate share of influence, but of their exclusive and despotic possession of the human mind. This result, though undoubtedly unforeseen, arose from various causes. The first was evidently the novelty, extent, and variety of the scene which displayed itself to the Crusaders; what happened to travellers, happened to them. It is mere common place to say, that travelling gives freedom to the mind; that the habit of observing different nations, different manners, and different opinions, enlarges the ideas, and disengages the judgment from old prejudices. The same thing happened to those nations of travellers who have been called Crusaders; their minds were opened and raised by having seen a multitude of different things, by having become acquainted with other manners than their own." The same writer goes on to observe that "a vast and unexplored world was laid open to the view of European intelligence by the consequence of the crusades. It cannot be doubted that the impulse which led to them was one of the most powerful causes of the development and freedom of mind which arose out of that great event."*

"Those strange expeditions," says Lord Brougham, "had an important influence upon European manners and institutions. For the present we have only to remark their effect in extending the spirit of civility and courtesy, which the feudal aristocracy had already begun to diffuse. Those who did not join the crusades were, nevertheless, animated by similar feelings, not of a sordid, but of an enthusiastic nature. It was no longer the savage love of plunder or the necessities of providing subsistence, the mainspring of the barbaHistoire de Civil: p. 250. See likewise Note C, at the end of the volume.

rous inroads, that excited men to warlike enterprises. The religious feeling, which led them to Palestine, had its origin in a pure though perverted sentiment; it was the same which had formerly made pilgrimages a duty and a pleasure; but it was now joined with military valour; and though connected with the hope of reward, it was hope of reward in another world. The Crusader was the pilgrim armed; added to the patience and fortitude of the wayfaring man, the active courage of the soldier fighting for religion's sake. Many, doubtless, joined the train from more sordid motives, and love of temporal conquest engrafted itself on spiritual zeal; but the stock was of a kind more or less sentimental. Hence they who did not take the cross, partook of the spirit which filled the Crusaders, and their activity and enthusiasm was exhausted upon works of a kindred nature at home."*

Poli. Phil.: Vol. 1, p. 322.

W

CHAPTER XVI.

THE INFLUENCE OF CHIVALRY ON POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SENTIMENT, OPINION, AND LITERATURE.

THE political feelings and sentiments of modern times, owe much to the institution of chivalry. It was an offshoot of both the feudal system and the Crusaders; and it has moulded the social and political arrangements of every country in Europe, and refined and elevated the habits of society generally, to an extent, which few, looking merely at its outward and somewhat grotesque displays, would be led to imagine.

The institution in question dates back to about the eleventh century; and is ascribed, by some writers, to the aggrandizements of the French barons, as it was developed in the dynasty of the early kings of France. However this may be, certain it is, that this class of nobles displayed the power and pomp of little sovereigns, and in their respective spheres vied with the king himself in ostentatious ceremonies. Every baron kept up the formalities of a little court; and in these courts the nobility were trained to manners and etiquette. In imitation of royalty, the nobles distributed the offices of their establishments among their