be done by," as one of its fundamental maxims, which is wholly opposed to the idea of one man becoming the property of another. These two principles of mutual obligation, and the worth of the individual, were beyond the comprehension of the states of antiquity, but are now at the basis of morals, politics, and religion. In the most cultivated states of antiquity, the individual, as such, was little regarded. He was considered only as a citizen of a body politic. In fact, whilst we found the whole idea of the state on the prior idea of the individual, the state with them was the primitive idea, from which the individual received his significance and worth, for they did not consider the individual as a being placed on earth for the purpose of self-improvement, to promote which political societies are formed. To foreigners they gave the name of barbarians, enemies, slaves.

Aristotle, one of the most powerful minds of antiquity, says, in his politics, "With barbarians, the family consists of male and female slaves; but to the Greeks belong dominion over the barbarians, because, the former have the understanding requisite to rule, the latter the body only to obey." He calls the slave a living instrument, as the instrument is an inanimate slave. Yet he adds, "for the slave, considered simply as such, no friendship can be entertained; but it may be felt for him, as he is a man." We perceive here the nobleness of his nature struggling with the limited ideas of his age. We find several traces of a similar feeling among men of elevated character. Plutarch, for instance, in his life of Numa, expresses his belief in an early golden age, when there were neither masters nor slaves.

NOTE B. PAGE 158.

"Cyprianus Januario, Maximo, Proculo, Victori, Modiano, Nemesiano, Nampulo, et Honorato fratribus salutem. Cum maximo animi nostri gemitu et non sine lacrymis legimus litteras vestras, fratres carissimi, quas ad nos pro dilectionis vestræ sollicitudine de fratrum nostrorum et sororum captivitate fecistis. Quis enim non doleat in ejusmodi casibus, aut quis non dolorem fratris sui suum propium computet, cum loquatur apostolus Paulus et dicat: Si patitur unum membrum, compatiuntur et cætera membra: si lætatur membrum unum, collætantur et cætera membra. (1. ad Cor. 12.) Et alio loco: Quis infirmatur, inquit, et non ego infirmor. (2. ad. Cor. 11.) Quare nunc et nobis captivitas fratrum nostra captivitas computanda est, et periclitantium dolor pro nostro dolore numerandus est, cum sit scilicet adunationis nostræ corpus unum, et non tantum dilectio sed et religio instigare nos debeat et confortare ad fratrum membra redimenda. Nam cum denuo apostolus Paulus dicat: Nescitis quia templum Dei estis, et Spiritus Dei habitat in vobis? (1. ad Cor. 3.) etiamsi charitas nos minus adigeret ad opem fratribus ferendam, considerandum tamen hoc in loco fuit, Dei templum esse quæ capta sunt, nec pati nos longa cessatione et neglecto dolore debere, ut diu Dei templa captiva sint; sed quibus possumus viribus elaborare et velociter gerere ut Christum judicem et Dominum et Deum nostrum promereamur obsequiis nostris. Nam cum dicit Paulus apostolus, Quotquot in Christo baptizati estis, Christum induistis, (ad Gal. 3.) in captivis

fratribus nostris contemplandus est Christus et redimendus de periculo captivitatis, qui nos de diaboli faucibus exuit, nunc ipse qui manet et habitet in nobis de barbororum manibus exuatur, et redimatur nummaria quantitate qui nos cruce redemit et sanguine

Quantus vero communis omnibus nobis mœror atque cruciatus est de periculo virginum quæ illic tenentur ? pso quibus non tantum libertatis, sed et pudoris jactura plangenda est, nec tam vincula barbarorum quam lenonum et lupanarium stupra deflenda sunt, ne membra Christo dicata et in æternum continentiæ honorem pudica virtute devota, insultantium libidine et contagione fœdentur ? Quæ omnia istic secundum litteris vestras fraternitus nostra cogitans et dolenter examinans, prompte omnes et libenter ac largiter subsidia nummaria fratribus contulerunt

Misimus autem sestertia centum millia nummorum, quæ istic in ecclesia cui de Domini indulgentia præsumus, cleri et plebis apud nos consistentis collatione, collecta sunt, quæ vos illic pro vestra diligentia dispensabitis

Si tamen ad explorandam nostri animi charitatem, et examinandi nostri pectori. fidem tale aliquid acciderit, nolite cunctari nuntiare hæc nobis litteris vestris, pro certo habentes ecclesiam nostram et fraternitatem istic universam, ne hæc ultra fiant precibus orare, si facta fuerint, libenter et largiter subsida præstare " (Epist. 60.)

NOTE C. PAGE 304.

'Many Italian, French, and Flemish monks, were intrusted with diplomatic missions to the Grand Khan. Many Moguls of rank, visited Rome, Barcelona, Valencia, Paris, London, and Northampton; and a Franciscan, from Naples, was archbishop of Pekin. His successor, was a professor of theology, from the University of Paris. But how many other persons less known would follow in the suite of these personages, either as slaves, or attracted by the hope of gain, and the desire of visiting countries hitherto unknown! Chance has preserved the names of some of these. The first envoy, whom the Tartars sent to the King of Hungary, was an Englishman who had been banished for his crimes, and who, after wandering for some time in Asia, at length took service with the Moguls. A Flemish cordelier, met with a woman of Metz, named Paquette, in the wilds of Tartary, who had been carried off from Hungary; also a Parisian goldsmith, who had a brother living in Paris; and a young man from Rouen, who had been at the siege of Belgrade. He also saw Russians, Hungarians, and Flemings. A chanter, named Robert, who had travelled all through Asia, returned home, and died in the Cathedral of Chantres. A Tartar supplied helmets to the army of Philip-le-Bel. Jean de Plancarpin, met a Russian gentleman near Gayouk, whom he calls Temer, and who acted as an interpreter; many merchants from Breslau, Poland, and Austria, accompanied

him in his journey into Tartary. Others returned with him through Russia,mostly Genoese, Pisans, and Venetians. Two merchants from Venice, whom chance had led to Bokhara, followed a Mogul sent by Houlagou to Kublai-Khan. They remained many years in China and Tartary; returned with letters from the Grand Khan to the Pope; again revisited the Grand Khan, one of them carrying with him his son, the celebrated Marco Polo; and, after remaining some time with Kublai Khan, returned to Venice. Journeys of this kind were not less frequent in the succeeding century. Amongst them may be named those of John Mandeville, an English physician, Oderic de Frisal, Pegoletti, William de Bouldeselle, and many others. We may readily imagine that the travels, of which the remembrance has been preserved, form a very small proportion of those which were undertaken; and that in those days, many more persons were able to perform distant journeys, than to write an account of them. Many of these adventurers, also, would establish themselves, and die in the countries that they visited. Others would return to their homes, as undistinguished as when they left them; but having their imaginations filled with what they had seen, they would describe their travels to their families, and doubtless exaggerate everything that had happened to them. Their recitals, however, though mingled with many ridiculous fables, would leave behind them useful recollections and traditions, capable of being turned to advantage. Thus, in Germany, in Italy, and in France, in the monasteries, amongst the nobles, and even in the lowest ranks of society, many precious seeds were sown, destined to bear fruit at a later period. These ignorant travellers, carried the arts of their country into distant lands, and brought back with them in return other acquisitions, not less valuable; thus, unconsciously, being the means of effecting exchanges, much more important than those of commerce. By their means, not only was the trade in silk, in porcelain, and other Indian commodities, much extended, and facilitated, and new outlets opened to industry, and commercial activity; but, what was much better, foreign manners, unknown nations, and extraordinary productions, were presented to the imagination of Europeans, which, since the fall of the Roman Empire, had been confined within too narrow a circle. The most anciently civilised, the finest and most populous of the four quarters of the globe, at length became of some importance to Europe. The arts, the religions, and the languages of the East, began to be studied; and it was in contemplation to found a professorship of the Tartar language in the University of Paris. Exaggerated tales, which however were soon investigated and appreciated, diffused more varied and accurate ideas. The world seemed to be extended in the East; geography was prodigiously improved; the passion for new discovery became the form under which the adventurous spirit of Europe appeared. The idea of another hemisphere, was divested of improbability, when our own portion of the globe was better known:-it was in endeavouring to trace the Zipangri of Marco Polo, that Columbus discovered the New World.”—M. Abel Remusat.

NOTE D. PAGE 444.

CENTURY I.

SOVEREIGN PRINCES.-Roman Emperors.-Augustus, A.D. 14.-Tiberius, 37.—Caligula, 41.—Claudius, 54.—Nero, 69.—Galba, 69.-Otho, 69.—Vitellius, 70.-Vespasian, 79-Titus, 81.-Domitian, 96.-Nerva, 98.

POPES OR BISHOPS OF ROME.-The succession of the first bishops of Rome is a matter full of intricacy and obscurity. We shall herein follow the learned Bishop Pearson:-Linus.-Anacletus.-Clement.-Evaristus.— Alexander. The dates of the deaths of the Roman pontiffs are not the same in the accounts of chronologers. Petau, Fleury, Pearson, Marcel, Pfaff, Bower, Lenglet, and others, differ frequently in this respect; and their differences sometimes are considerable. For example, the death of Pope Anicetus is placed by Petau and Lenglet in the year 161, by Pearson and Pfaff in 162, by Fleury, Walch, and Bower, in 168. As it is impossible to reconcile these historians, and difficult often to decide which calculates best, we shall follow Pearson and Pfaff as the surest guides.

ECCLESIASTICAL AND THEOLOGICAL WRITERS.-The Evangelists and Apostles.-The three Apostolical Fathers, Clement, Barnabas, Hermas.-— Philo the Jew.-Flavius Josephus--These are almost all the genuine ecclesiastical writers of the first century that are now extant. For the letter of Jesus Christ to Abgarus, king of Edessa-the Gospels, Acts, Epistles, and Liturgies, that have (besides those which we esteem canonical) been at. tributed to the Apostles-as also the Epistles of Mary to Ignatius and others -the Acts of Pilate-the Epistles of Seneca to St. Paul, &c., must be considered as apocryphal and spurious.-The works that bear the name of Dionysius the Areopagite, were forged in the fifth century.

REMARKABLE EVENTS.-The tax of Augustus Cæsar.-The birth of Christ. —John the Baptist beheaded.—Christ's miracles, sufferings, death, resurrection, and ascension.-Several Christian churches founded.-The first persecution, under Nero.-The oracles reduced to silence, a dubious, or rather a fabulous story.-The destruction of Jerusalem.-The second persecution of the Christians under Domitian.

PROFANE AUTHORS.-Titus Livius.-Germanicus.-Gratius.-Ovid.-Julius

-

Hyginus.-Labeo.-Valerius Maximus.-Phædrus.-Verrius Flaccus.-Strabo -Dionysius of Alexandria.-Seneca the rhetorician.-Seneca the philosopher and poet.-Vell. Paterculus.-Cremutius Isidore, of Charax.-Celsus, physician.-Massur. Sabinus. - Didymus of Alexandria.- Cocceius Nerva. Philo the Jew.-Pomponius Mela.-Columella.-Remm. Palæon.-Votienus. Servilius Marcus.-Annæus Cornutus.- Lucan.-Andromachus.-Petronius.-Persius.-Epictetus.-Dioscorides.-Flavius Josephus.-Silius Italicus -Valerius Flaccus.-Pliny the elder.-Pliny the younger.-Ascan. Pedianus. -Plin. Valerianus.-Juvenal.-Martial.-Statius.-Sext. Jul.-Frontinus.Quintilian. Dion. Chrysostom. - Tacitus. - Phlegon.— Appian. - Trogus Pompeius.-Athenodorus.

CENTURY II.

SOVEREIGN PRINCES.-Roman Emperors.-Trajan, A.D. 117.—Adrian, 138. -Anton. Pius, 161.-M. Antoninus, 180.-Lucius Verus, 180.-Commodus, 192.-Pertinax, 193.- Did. Julianus, 193.— Niger, 194.-Albinus, 198.— Severus.

POPES, OR BISHOPS OF ROME.-Xystus or Sextus, A.D. 127. -Telesphorus, 138.-Hyginus, 150.-Pius I., 153.-Anicetus, 162.-Soter.-172.-Eleutherius, 185.-Victor I., 196.

ECCLESIASTICAL AND THEOLOGICAL WRITERS.-Ignatius of Antioch.— Polycarp.-Justin Martyr.-Hegesippus.-Theophilus of Antioch.-Melito. -Tatian.-Papias.-Appolinaris- Hermeas.-Athenagoras.-Clemens Alexandrinus. Tertullian.-Aquila. - Theodotian.- Symmachus.-Hermeas.The unknown author of the Sibylline Oracles.-Irenæus.-Polycrates.Dionysius of Corinth.-Pantænus.-Quadratus.-Add to these several fragments of writings of some of the principal heretics. These fragments are collected by Cotelerius, Grabr, &c.

REMARKABLE EVENTS.-Third persecution under Trajan, mitigated by the intercession of Pliny the younger.-Fourth persecution under Adrian.—Fifth persecution under Antoninus Pius, continued under Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.-Conversion of the Germans and Gauls, and (if we may give credit to Bede) of the Britons.-Thundering Legion, a dubious event.— Insurrections of the Jews against the Romans.-The sedition and slaughter of that people under the standards of Barcocheba, the false Messiah.-The Jews driven from Jerusalem.-Horrible calumnies thrown out against the Christians by Lucian, Crescens, Celsus, and the Pagans in general.-The perusal of the Sibylline oracles prohibited by an imperial edict.-Christian assemblies are held on Sundays, and other stated days, in private houses, and in the burying places of martyrs.

PROFANE AUTHORS.-Arrian.-Aulus Gellius.-Plutarch.- Florus.-Celsus the lawyer.-nomaus.-Philo of Phoenicia.-Ptolemy the astronomer and geographer. Salvius Julianus.-Suetonius.-Apollonius the philosopher.Appian.-Fronto.-Maximus Tyrius.-Taurus Calvisius.-Apuleius.-Artem

idorus.-Lucian.-Numenes.-Pausanius.-Polianus.-Sextus Empiricus.Athenæus.- Julius Pollux.-Diogenes Laertius. - Gallienus.-Ammonius Saccas. Priscus.-Cephalion.-Aristides.-Hermogenes, who, at the age of 17, published his Rhetoric; at 20, his book on Ideas; and at 25, is said to have forgot all he had learned.-Justin Martyr.-Theophilus of Antioch.Chrysorus.-Marcus Antoninus.-Harpocration.- Polyænus.- Athenagoras. -Celsus the philosopher.-Julius Solinus.-Plotinus.-Papinian.

CENTURY III.

SOVEREIGN PRINCES.-Roman Emperors.-Severus, A.D. 211.-Caracalla, 217.- Geta, 212.-Macrinus, 218.-Heliogabalos, 222.-Severus Alexander, 235.-Maximin, 237.-Gordian I., II., 237.-Pupienus, Balbinus, 238.Gordian III., 244.-Philip the Arabian, supposed to have been the first Christian emperor, 250.-Decius, 252.-Gallus Volusianus, 253.-Æmilianus, 253.-Valerian, 259.-Gallienus, 268.-Claudius II., 270.-Quintilian, 270.—