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ABACUS (Gr. åßağ, a slab or board), a piece of school apparatus, used to facilitate the teaching of children to count, and perform other simple arithmetical operations. Various forms of the abacus are employed as counting or adding machines. Such a contrivance was much used among the ancients; and in China, quite long and difficult computations are performed by means of such an instrument, called swan-pan. (See NUMERAL FRAME.)

ABBOT, Benjamin, LL. D., distinguished for his long connection with Phillips Academy, Exeter, N. H., of which institution he was the principal for a period of fifty years, from 1788 to 1838. He was a graduate of Harvard College. He died at Exeter in 1849, at the advanced age of 86 years. Edward Everett delivered one of his graceful and elegant speeches on the occasion of the retirement of Dr. Abbot from the principalship of Phillips Exeter Academy. EVERETT, Orations and Speeches.

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ABBOTT, Rev. Jacob, a distinguished clergyman, teacher, and author, was born at Hallowell, Me., in 1803, and graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820. He was professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst College from 1825 to 1829, and afterwards took charge of the Mount Vernon school for giris. in Boston. In connection with education, he is chiefly noted for his numerous books for the young, among which may be particularly mentioned the Rollo Books, the Franconia Stories, the Harper Story Books, Science for the Young, and The Teacher. A full catalogue of his publications embraces about 200 titles. He has also edited many other educational works, and compiled a series of reading books. His brothers, Rev. Gorham D. and Rev. John S. C., are also noted for their labors in the field of educational and literary effort.

A-B-C SHOOTERS (Germ. ABC-Schützen), pupils of those scholastic vagrants who, during a certain period of the middle ages, and even later, used to wander through many parts of Germany, giving instruction to such pupils as they could pick up, who accompanied them in their journeyings. These itinerant teachers were called Bacchants, from their disorderly lives and their disposition to indulge in wild revels. Their pupils were often obliged to purloin food, fowls, etc., to supply their masters' wants, and hence were called, partly in derision of their elementary knowledge, A-B-C Shooters shoot, in their parlance, being the slang word for steal.-See SCHMID, Encyclopädie; and BARNARD, American Journal of Education, vol. v.

ABELARD, or Abailard, Pierre, one of the most famous teachers of philosophy and theology in the middle ages, was born in Nantes, in 1079, died April 21st, 1142, at St. Marcel, near Chalons-sur-Saône. A pupil of William of Champeaux in philosophy, and of Anselm of Laon in theology, he became the dreaded and hated rival of both, as they found themselves entirely eclipsed by the cosmopolitan reputation of their pupil, who for a time was regarded in the Christian world as the foremost of all living teachers. The tragic end of his love for his pupil Heloise, whom he had seduced, closed to him the higher ecclesiastical dignities, and drove him into the austerities and retirement of monastic life; but his theological and philosophical writings continued to keep the Christian world in a high state of excitement. His opinions were repeatedly condemned by councils and synods as heretical, but he always preferred submission to the sentence of the Church rather than open defiance. His influence on the schools of the middle ages was, without doubt, greater than that of any of his contemporaries. He introduced dialectics into theology, and thus, as Cousin says, "contributed more than any other to the foundation of scholasticism."

ABC, the first three letters of the English alphabet, often used to denote the alphabet itself; as, "To learn A B C is felt to be extremely irksome by the infant." Taylor. (See ALPHABET.) A-B-C BOOK, a primer, or little book used A complete edition of the works of Abelard to learn the alphabet and its simplest combina- was published by Cousin (2 vols., Paris, 1849tions, with the most rudimental lessons in read-1859), containing also valuable notes by the ing. (See HORN-BOOK.)

A-B-C METHOD. See ALPHABET METHOD. ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from the names of the first four letters of the alphabet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has not advanced beyond the most elementary stage of school or book education, that is, who is learning A B C, or the alphabet. The name has been sometimes applied to one engaged in teaching the alphabet. (See READING, and WORD METHOD.)

editor. Among the best biographical works on Abelard are those by Rémusat (Abélard, 2 vols., Paris, 1845), and Wilkens (Peter Abälard Göttingen, 1855). See also SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik.

ABERCROMBIE, John, M. D., was born at Aberdeen, in 1781, and died in 1844. In his profession as a physician he rose to great eminence, and was widely distinguished for his writings on medical subjects. In connection with education, he is noted for his Inquiries con

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cerning the Intellectual Powers, and The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. These two works possess great merit, and have been quite extensively used as school text-books. They were edited and adapted to the use of schools in this country by Jacob Abbott.

ABINGDON COLLEGE, at Abingdon, Ill., under the control of the Disciples of Christ, was founded in April, 1853.. The number of students in the institution in 1875 was about 180. It has an endowment of $20,000. The college building is a handsome edifice well supplied with modern furniture and appliances. There are about 1000 volumes in the library, besides which the institution has a museum and laboratory. The names of its successive presidents are Patrick Murphy, J. W. Butler, and Oval Pirkey. The annual tuition fee is from $30 to $39.

ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in the attendance of pupils belonging to a school; that is. the number of school sessions from which a pupil was absent, as compared with the number at which he was present, during any particular period, gives the absenteeism of the pupil for that period. The average daily attendance of pupils divided by the average daily enrollment the "average number belonging”-shows the percentage of attendance; and this subtracted from 100 gives, of course, the percentage of absenteeism. Within certain limits, this is a criterion of efficiency of management and instruction. Class teachers who interest their pupils necessarily secure a more regular attendance than those who fail in this respect; and principals of schools who keep a careful watch over all the pupils belonging to their schools, strictly and uniformly enforcing wholesome rules of discipline, and carefully notifying parents of the absence of their children, inquiring into the cause of the same, and admonishing both parents and pupils of the need of strict regularity, will, of course, succeed best in this regard. Where the basis for computing the degree of absenteeism is the average enrollment, and where regularity of attendance is made a test of efficient management, teachers will be more careful to keep the number of pupils on the rolls as little as possible above the average attendance. Hence, to render this test reliable, a uniform rule should be followed in the discharging of pupils for non-attendance. Such a rule has been adopted in many cities of the Union, any pupil's name being invariably dropped from the roll after a certain number of days of absence, however caused. This is based on the principle that irregularity of attendance being at school one day, one week, or one month, and absent the next is not only of no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive injury to the other pupils, and is a serious hindrance and embarrassment to the teacher in the management of the school. To some extent, absenteeism thus computed may indicate also the prevailing tone of the community in regard to education the degree of appreciation of the benefits of education generally felt by the people, as inducing parents to sacrifice their own personal

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advantage, in the employment of their children. to the interests of the latter, in enjoying the benefits of school instruction.

"Absenteeism" is also technically applied to a total neglect of school attendance by a part of the school population of any place. This is exhibited by a comparison of the average attendance of pupils with the census of children of school age. (See ATTENDANCE.)

ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These terms have a very important application in many departments of practical education. Abstract has reference to general ideas, or the ideas of qualities considered apart from the things to which they belong; concrete, to those which are only conceived as belonging to particular objects or substances. Thus, if we speak of a man, a horse, a tree, etc., we use abstract or general ideas; for we are not thinking of any particular object of the class, but only of the assemblage of qualities or characteristics that especially belong to all the members of the class. But when we mention such names as Cicero, Washington, John Smith, etc., we have in our mind a conception of the characteristics that served to distinguish those persons from all other men. Thus, the expression five pounds represents a concrete idea; the word five, an abstract one.

The immature minds of young children employ to a great extent concrete ideas, and hence the instruction addressed especially to them should deal principally with these. As the mind advances, it becomes more and more occupied with abstract conceptions, which constitute the material for all the higher forms of thought and ratiocination.

ACADEMY (Gr. 'Ακαδημια or 'Ακαδήμεια) was originally the name of a pleasure ground near Athens, and was said to be so called after Academus, a local hero at the time of the Trojan war. Its shady walks became a favorite resort for Plato: and, as he was accustomed to lecture here to his pupils and friends, the school of philosophers which was founded by him was called the Academic School, or merely the Academy. In the history of ancient philosophy, three different academies are distinguished, the Old Academy, formed by the immediate followers of Plato, the Middle Academy, founded, about 244, by Arcesilaus, and the New Academy, whose founder was Carneades, about 160 B. C. Sometimes the philosophical schools founded by Philo and Antiochus are called respectively the Fourth and the Fifth Academy. Among the Romans, Cicero, who regarded himself as an adherent of the Academic philosophy, gave the name of Academy to the gymnasium at his villa near Tusculum, as well as to one of his villas in Campania, where he wrote his Academica Quæstiones. During the middle ages, the term was but little used for learned institutions; but, after the revival of classical studies in the 15th century, it again became frequent. In a wider sense, it was sometimes applied to higher institutions of learning in general. Gradually, however, its use was, in most countries, restricted to special schools, as

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academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, and their influence on other educational instiof fine arts, and, especially, of music. In Eng-tutions has been considerable. The Académie land and the United States, the national high française is the highest authority upon everyschools for the education of military and naval thing relating to the niceties of the French lanofficers are called academies. Thus, England has guage, to grammar, and the publication of the the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the French classics. The Académie des inscriptions Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the et belles lettres embraces among the objects of United States, the Military Academy at West its attention comparative philology. Like the Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. French Institute, the academies in the capitals of In the United States, the name has also been Spain. Portugal, Sweden, Russia, and other assumed by a large number of secondary schools, countries, have gradually become great national which are designed to prepare their pupils for centers for the promotion of science and art; colleges, or to impart a general knowledge of the but no such centralization has been effected in common and higher branches of education. As Italy, Germany, England, or the United States. they are, in nearly all cases, private institutions, In England, the learned corporations correspondindependent of any control by state boards, their ing to the continental academies of sciences have courses of instruction widely differ, ranging from generally the name society or association. Engthe lowest primary class to the highest classes of land proper has, however, a royal academy of arts grammar and high schools. They are usually (founded in 1765, reorganized in 1768) and a both boarding and day schools. royal academy of music (established in 1822); and in Edinburgh, there is a royal academy of yachting (founded in 1754). In Ireland, the name academy, according to its continental use, has been adopted for the Royal Academy of Sciences at Dublin (founded in 1782). In the United States of America there are also a number of learned societies to which the name academy, in the sense used on the continent of Europe, has been applied. The following societies are called academies: The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, at Boston (founded in 1780), the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences (founded in 1799), the Academy of Natural Science in Philadelphia (founded in 1818), the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (established in 1807), the National Academy of Design, at New York (founded in 1828); the Medical Academy of New York. The National Academy of Sciences was incorporated by Congress, March 3d, 1863. In New York, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, Chicago, and other large cities, the principal opera house is called the Academy of Music.

The name academy is also employed to designate associations of learned men for the advancement of science and art. Some of these associations are of an entirely private character, others have been founded by the state. The first academy of this kind was the Museum of Alexandria, in Egypt, which was founded by Ptolemy Soter. After its model, the Jews, toward the close of the first century of the Christian era, began to establish academies for the development of Talmudic science. Later, the Arabian caliphs established academies at their places of residence, to show their interest in the promotion of science. Efforts to establish Christian academies of this kind were made by Gregory the Great and Charlemagne, but both failed. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth century, that associations of this kind were formed in Italy for the purpose of fostering the free development of science and art, in opposition to the rigid conservatism of the monastic and ecclesiastical schools. They gave special attention to the cultivation of the Italian language and literature. It was es- ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as pecially the Accademia della Crusca, founded at contrasted with culture, refers to those educaFlorence by the poet Grazzini, to which the tional acquirements which fit a person for certain Italian language is indebted for its purification special activities, while culture has reference to and development. From Italy, these institutions the general improvement of the character or spread to the other countries of Europe; and, as mental faculties. Hence the expression "external they became the centers of literary activity, they accomplishments." or ornamental accomplishexercised every-where a prominent influence ments," such as skill in foreign languages, music, upon the intellectual progress of the several drawing, painting, dancing, etc. Involved in this countries, and, especially, upon the improvement application of the term, is the idea of display, or and regulation of the native tongue. Prominent the ability to please, or the power to awaken adamong these academies, was the Académie fram- miration in the beholder. Thus in the Spectator çaise, instituted, in 1635, by Cardinal Riche- we find the expression "the visible graces of lieu. In 1795, it was united with three other speech and the dumb eloquence of motion," as French academies into the Institut national, indicating the accomplishments of a pleasing adthe name of which was changed by Louis XVI dress and a graceful carriage. into Institut de France. The Institute con- Accomplishments are either purely intellecsisted then of four academies: (1) l'Académie tual, as that of language, or partly or wholly française, (2) l'Académie des inscriptions et artistic, such as music, drawing, dancing, etc. In belles lettres, (3) l'Académie des sciences, (4) the education of boys, fencing and boxing were l'Académie des beaux arts. A fifth academy, formerly considered as indispensable accomplishl'Académie des sciences morales et politiques, was added in 1832. These academies are among the most important of the kind in the world,

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ments; but of these, at the present time, rowing seems to take precedence, as contributing to a healthy development of the physical system.

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In many classes of schools, particularly in private seminaries, the acquisition of certain ornamental accomplishments constitutes the chief end of education. Were these accomplishments based on a solid culture of the intellectual and moral nature, they would be very proper and desirable; but being merely showy and superficial, they constitute a perversion of the true end of education. Thus Hannah More remarks: "In training our daughters, should we not carefully cultivate intellect, implant religion, and cherish modesty? Then, whatever is engaging in manners would be the natural result of whatever is just in sentiment and correct in principle. Softness would grow out of humility, and external delicacy would spring from purity of heart." The folly and wrong of giving this exclusive attention to mere accomplishments have very frequently been a subject of satirical invective. Says Sydney Smith: "A woman of accomplishments may entertain those who have the pleasure of knowing her for half an hour with great brilliancy; but a mind full of ideas, and with that elastic spring which the love of knowledge only can convey, is a perpetual source of exhilaration and amusement to all that come within its reach. Therefore, instead of hanging the understanding of a woman upon walls, or hearing it vibrate upon strings, instead of seeing it in clouds, or hearing it in the wind, we would make it the first spring and ornament of society, by enriching it with attainments, upon which alone such power depends." Goldsmith also inveighed severely against this practice in his time. "Another passion," he says, "which the present age is apt to run into is, to make children learn all things, the languages, the sciences, music, the exercises, and painting. Thus the child soon becomes a talker in all, but a master in none. He thus acquires a superficial fondness for everything, and only shows his ignorance, when he attempts to exhibit his skill." The tendency of the present time, in what is called fashionable education, is equally subject to the same unfavorable criticism. Accomplishments, in the first stages of education, are to be regarded as secondary to the solid improvement of the mind. Those rudimentary attainments which constitute the basis of all school education, and are indispensable to any further progress, namely, reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic, must of course be made; to which should be added the ability to use one's own language, in speaking and writing, with tolerable ease and propriety. A common-school education should give great prominence to these, as not only constituting the acquirements most generally needed for success in life, but as placing in the hands of the pupils the keys to future progress in learning.

Accomplishment, being derived from the French accomplir, to finish or complete, may be contrasted with smattering, a mere superficial acquirement of some of the prominent or rudimental parts of any subject. No educational scheme should admit of the study of any branch of knowledge which cannot, under the given

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circumstances and in the time proposed, be accomplished so as to give the pupils who are to pursue it, a thorough knowledge of the subject, as well as the ability to apply it to some prac tical purpose. The peculiar talent, or bent of mind, of children should be regarded, in the attempt to bestow upon them ornamental accomplishments, such as music and drawing, except such elementary portions of these arts as are within the capacity of all, and which constitute, not indeed special accomplishments, but a part of that general culture which the most elementary education should bestow. (See CULTURE.)

ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowledge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the primary object; but, in the earlier stages of education, it is generally secondary, the educative value of the process taking precedence of the practical importance of the knowledge communicated. The acquisition of new ideas must always, more or less, improve the mind by affording additional material for the exercise of its various faculties ; but, in education, what particular faculties are concerned in the study of any subject or branch of knowledge, is a matter of paramount importance, and therefore should never be lost sight of by the teacher. Where this is disregarded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere rote-teaching; and the teacher will often rest satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formula of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition of new ideas, on which alone the improvement of the mind depends.

ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. aкpoauaTikóç, to be heard, designed for hearing only), a name originally applied to the esoteric teachings of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to designate such as were confined to their immediate hearers, and not committed to writing. Later, the term has been applied to a system of instruction in which the teacher speaks and the pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity of age and of considerable progress in intellectual culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system. (See LECTURE.)

ADAM, Alexander, LL. D., was born in Scotland, in 1741, and died in 1809. He attained a high distinction as a teacher while Rector of the High School at Edinburgh (1768–1808). He was also the author of several educational text-books, among which his Roman Antiquities (1791) has been very extensively used in this country and in Great Britain.

ADAMS, John, LL. D., was born in Canterbury, Ct., in 1772, and died in Jacksonville, Ill., in 1863. He was noted both as a teacher and a philanthropist. After graduating at Yale College, in 1795, he taught the academy in his native town, and subsequently other schools, till, in 1810, he became principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in which position he continued for twenty-three years. In 1833, he removed to Illinois, and was very active in effecting improvements in the school system of that

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State. His labors in connection with various and girls to the 16th or 18th year of age. Sev benevolent institutions in both States, were nu-eral states made attendance at these schools obmerous and important. Through his efforts, a large number of Sunday schools were established in his adopted State. Many essays and other publications on education attest the intelligence and ability with which he devoted himself to the training of the young.

ADRIAN COLLEGE, at Adrian, Mich., was founded in 1859, by the Methodists. The number of students is about 200, males and females, about one fourth of whom belong to the collegiate department. It has a classical and scientific course of instruction, a school of theology, a school of music, and a normal class. Its corps of instructors numbers twelve, and it has one endowed professorship. The number of volumes in its library is about 1000; its endowment is $100,000. Rev. G. B McElroy, D. D., is the president of the Institution (1876). The tuition fee is very small.

ADULTS, Schools for. The proper time to obtain instruction is during the periods of boyhood or girlhood, and youth. (See AGE IN EDUCATION.) It is in the interest of states as well as of families and individuals, that, as much as possible, every child, not prevented by physical disabilities, should have its share in the instruction provided by public legislation and private effort. The majority of states have even deemed it a duty to make education compulsory, in order to render it universal. (See COMPULSORY EDUCATION.) It is also the general tendency of educational legislation to extend the legal school age to the utmost, in order to make the educa tion of the school population as thorough as possible. (See SCHOOL AGE.) Still, though boyhood and youth are the proper ages for instruction, the need of special schools for a lults has always been deeply felt. Though modern legislation has succeeded in some countries in almost wholly extinguishing illiteracy (see ILLITERACY), the number of adults whose education, during the proper age, has either been entirely insufficient, or who find themselves on entering life, without the requisite amount of information specially needed in their several avocations, remains as great as ever, and is even likely to increase, as the standard of popular education becomes more elevated. Systematic reading, instruction by private teachers, and, more recently, popular lectures, are among the principal agencies for supplementing the deficiencies of school education. Efforts have, how ever, not been wanting in many states to establish schools for adults for the special purpose of giving to those who have left the public schools and entered into practical life, a suitable opportunity to supply the deficiency of their school education. Many German states began in the 18th century to establish Sunday schools in which, besides religious education, a review of the instruction given in the elementary school was provided for. As the school age, in the German states, only extended to the 14th year, a Sunday school was specially provided for boys

ligatory for all boys and girls who had left the elementary school and not entered any higher school. Special attention has been given to schools of this class in Austria, where the government has established "reviewing schools" (Wiederholungsschulen.) (See AUSTRIA.) As the ordinary Sunday or reviewing school was found to be insufficient, especially for young me chanics, special classes or schools were organized in which particularly instruction in drawing was given. The attendance at these schools is always voluntary; in most of them the scholars have to pay moderate fees; instruction is generally given on Sunday mornings, and, in most schools, is confined to writing, arithmetic, and drawing. In some of the German states, especially in Würtemberg, an evening school on week-days has been added to the Sunday school; and thus a great impulse has been given for the further development of industrial schools for adults. (See INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS.) The Schools for Adults established in other European countries are mostly evening industrial schools. United States, evening schools have been very extensively introduced, to give to all adults an opportunity of obtaining the same education as children receive during the day; and some of the larger cities afford in these evening high schools instruction in the studies of a higher grade. (See EVENING SCHOOLS.)

In the

ADVENTISTS. This is the name of several organizations of American Christians, the distinctive doctrine of whom is the belief in the speedy second advent of Christ, and the end of the world. In 1875, there were four different organizations: (1) The Advent Christian Association; (2) The American Millennial Association (Evangelical Adventists): (3) The Life and Advent Union; (4) The Seventh Day Adventists. The churches of this denomination were formerly almost wholly independent, and had fewer church boards for common interests than most of the other religious denominations of the United States. The greatest advance in point of organization has been made by the Seventh Day Adventists. The subject of education and the founding of a denominational school was brought to the attention of the members of this denomination by Elder James White and wife, in the early part of 1872. The matter was referred to a General Committee, who, during the summer and autumn of 1873, solicited subscriptions to this enterprise, obtaining pledges for over $54,000. On the 16th of March, 1874, an association was formed, under the law of Michigan, "for the incorporation of institutions of learning;" and a school edifice, capable of accommodating between four and five hundred students, was finished in 1875.- See Annual Cyclopedia, 1875, art. Adventists; also Seventh Day Adventists; a brief sketch of their Origin, Progress, and Principles (Battle Creek, 1874).

ÆSTHETIC CULTURE. See ESTHETIC CULTURE.

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