ordinary language, the function of which is to recall ideas to the mind by their abstract representatives in words; but words can recall conceptions of form only to a very limited extent, and scarcely at all those of an irregular or complex character. On the contrary, drawing, by a combination of the simple elements of lines, of various kinds and in various relations to each other, can transfer from one mind to another the most complicated conception, whether it be that of an actual object, or the creation of the imagination. Thus, the machinist has before him an exact representation of the piece of mechanism which he is to construct; the architect delineates the elevations and plans of the edifice which the builder is to erect, and the industrial draughtsman represents the designs which are to embellish the varied fabrics of the loom. In short, the uses and applications of this beautiful and expressive form language are infinite, stamping it as one of the most indispensable accomplishments of civilized man, and, consequently, one of the most important elements of his education. The value of drawing as a department of general or popular education, has been pretty fully treated in the article on ARTEDUCATION, to which the reader is referred for information on this point. In the present article, it is designed to present a brief outline of the relation of drawing to the various grades of education, with practical suggestions as to the methods of teaching it.

Drawing may be divided into two distinct departments, instrumental and free-hand, the former being principally employed in the mechanical, engineering, and architectural branches of industry; the latter, by artists, designers, and others. The two divisions are sometimes referred to as scientific and artistic, because the subjects coming under the first group, are based on scientific principles, and the results obtained are capable of demonstration by geometry; whilst free-hand work, either in imitation or original design, employs the perceptive rather than the reasoning faculties, and its results have to be judged by the standard of taste, in all features which do not involve a question of fact. Instrumental Drawing. The group of subjects which come under this division may be classified as elementary or applied; the first teaching methods of obtaining accuracy of form, and its appearance under given conditions; the second, applying this power of drawing to practical purposes, in the arts of planning, construction, and design.-The elementary subjects are: (1) Plane geometrical drawing; (2) projection of solids, (a) radial or perspective, (b) parallel or orthographic; (3) projection of shadows, (a) radial or perspective, (b) parallel or orthographic and isometric.-The applied subjects are: (1) Architectural drawing and building construction; (2) machine drawing, construction, and design; civil and military engineering; (3) surveying and topographical drawing; and (4) ship draughting, and marine architecture. The elementary subjects teach the student how

to draw the forms of lines, planes, or solids, either as the eye sees them by perspective, or as they actually exist, by orthographic or isometric projection. The forms usually employed in teaching, are regular geometric planes and solids, conveying, by the instruction given, the principles of representation by lines, on planes of delineation, when the objects are seen in space, or in a defined position in relation to the eye. The study of the elements of instrumental drawing is necessary, therefore, because by it we learn how to draw, as a science, which is obviously required before we can apply it to purposes involving a knowledge of the science. The elementary branches may thus be considered purely educational, whilst the advanced or applied divisions may be described as industrial.-In the applied subjects, a knowledge of plane and solid geometry prepares the architectural draughtsman to make working drawings for the builder, the carpenter, the mason, and other mechanics employed in the erection and construction of buildings; displaying, by geometrical drawings made to a regular scale, the true forms and dimensions of all parts of the fabric; enabling the builder to calculate exactly the quantity of materials required in its construction, and each artisan to prepare his share of the work, so that it shall truly fit its place. The science of projection and perspective is the basis of the language by which the architect expresses his design for the whole structure, displaying his arrangement of the plan, his design for the elevation, the true form of the building in its several aspects, and the appearance of the whole by means of a perspective view.-Again, in mechanical engineering, the designer of a machine must be thoroughly acquainted with projection as a science, before he can express on paper his devices for securing the speed and power required for his purpose. Working drawings have then to be made of the several parts and details, to furnish accurate information to the model maker, by which he may make each part of the machine in wood, to the molder who has to cast it in metal, and for the guidance of the finisher and fitter who complete the work and erect the machine. So, also, in surveying and topographical drawing, the actual features of a country or estate are ascertained through the application of plane and solid geometry, and reduced from the natural size to a plan which is, in all respects, like the true plan of the original, although on a different scale. By the use of such scale drawings, railways are planned and executed, cities and towns are laid out; and, by civil and military engineers, who employ the same means of delineating their work, cities are drained, supplied with water, or fortified and protected, bridges are built to span the river, and piers made to encroach upon the sea, tunnels made to cut through hills and mountains, and embankments and viaducts to fill the inequalities of valleys.-The marine engineer or naval constructor is equally dependent upon his knowledge of projection, in laying out the lines of his ship or boat,

in displaying its capacity for freight and modeling its shape for speed. All these features of his design are expressed by means of drawings, which are the application of plane and solid geometry to a special industrial purpose. It will be evident, therefore, that the constructive arts, which bear so important a relation to modern civilization, and employ so vast a number of persons, are all dependent upon drawing for the initiation of their schemes. At the foundation of successful work, in any and all of their departments, lies a knowledge of elementary drawing, which, regarded as a language, is of such a character, that it may be efficiently taught in the common schools of America, by the regular teachers employed to give instruction in general subjects, as soon as this practically useful subject forms a part of all normal-school education. Pure geometry may be considered the study of all these sciences in the abstract, and this is successfully pursued in the schools and colleges; scientific or instrumental drawing, under the headings called elementary subjects, would be the concrete application of geometry to the needs of practical education, to be applied at a future time to actual industry.

Free-Hand Drawing. As the name implies, this kind of drawing is the expression, by the unassisted hand, of what the eye perceives, or the mind, or imagination, conceives. Its results, therefore, are dependent upon the truthfulness of observation or power of conception possessed by the draughtsman, and, in some measure, upon his manipulative skill as a workman. As a rule, however, the power of drawing, or expression, is equal to the perceptive power, and imperfect or faulty work proceeds generally from a lack of clear understanding of the subject rather than want of hand skill.-As in instrumental drawing, free-hand drawing consists of two groups of subjects,-elementary and applied, the first being educational, and the second, industrial or professional. In the elementary division, are all those branches of study or exercises which develop the imitative faculties, embracing all kinds of copying from flat examples or round objects, including also the subjects of geometrical drawing and perspective, by which alone the truthfulness of expressed form can be tested. In applied drawing, the language of form is employed to embody new ideas, either as original designs for industrial art and manufactures, or express the ideal of fine art, the work of the imagination. It will be seen, therefore, that both scientific and artistic drawing, by instruments or by the free hand, have a common characteristic; they both involve a knowledge of, and skill in, drawing as a language, before the language can be employed for original purposes. To continue the analogy, and regarding drawing as the language of form, its alphabet consists of two letters, the straight line and the curve. Simple combinations of these, by elementary practice, produce, as it were, words of one syllable; the grouping of several objects in a drawing, may be described as a sentence; and an original

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design is the same as a composition or essay on a given theme. The artist uses the expression "out of drawing" in precisely the same sense as a scholar employs the term "ungrammatical," and (other terms being substituted) the criticism which has been made on a poem or a work of fiction, might apply exactly to a historical picture or an ideal figure, possessing similar characteristics. A great change has occurred in the opinion of educators, within the past quarter of a century (from 1850 to 1875) on the question of the possibility and advisability of teaching drawing to all children. Before the beginning of that period, it was generally believed that the ability to draw was a rare endowment rather than a power which could be acquired by all intelligent persons; and the sort of picture making, of a nondescript kind, which was then called drawing, could only be estimated, as it deserved, as a useless waste of time, that might have been wisely employed to better purpose. Experiments, in several European countries, upon large classes of children, and even in whole grades of schools, demonstrated the proposition that every one who could learn to write could learn to draw. In the schools of the Society of Friends in England, drawing had long been taught to every child, before the above conclusion had been arrived at; and there was no more inequality of ability displayed by the children in that subject than in any other. In England, whose display of industrial art in 1851 was little less than a national humiliation, the government, seeking after a remedy, took counsel of the teachers in the common schools, and requested some of them to try the experiment of teaching elementary drawing, in their classes, to pupils consisting entirely of the children of working men. After a year's trial, a convention of school-masters in London, about the year 1852, recorded as their opinion that all children who could learn at all, could be taught to draw, giving as the basis of their conviction that, during their year of experiment. "half of the time previously given to writing had been given to drawing, with the result, that the writing had been better, and the power of drawing was a clear gain.” From this time, aided by strong encouragement from the government, the subject came more and more into favor amongst educators, until it is now general in the schools. Concerning the possibility of teaching all persons to draw, an art master of long experience says, "There are but four classes of human beings whom it is not found practicable to instruct in drawing. They are the blind, the idiotic, the lunatic, and the paralytic. Of the rest of mankind and womankind, exactly one hundred per cent can be taught to draw." (Art Education, Scholastic and Industrial; Boston, 1873.) The same opinion is held by those teachers who have tried the experiment in the public schools of Boston, Mass.-Where drawing may have failed as a subject of instruction in the common schools, it has probably been treated as a special subject, taught by special teachers to the older pupils only, in the last year or two of school life. When

regarded as one of the elementary subjects of general education, and taught by the regular teachers, it has never failed. To ensure success in teaching the subject in the public schools, the following conditions are necessary: (1) Only those elementary branches should be taught which are educational in their influence, and the knowledge conveyed by them of general use (such as have been described as being at the foundation of all constructive industry). (2) Instruction in drawing should begin with school life, and end only when school, college, or university education is completed. (3) At the basis of all instruction is geometrical drawing, which illustrates the facts of regular forms; and perspective, which determines the appearance of those facts. (4) Original design, either element ary or applied, should form a part of the regular exercises required from pupils, alternating with other exercises, such as drawing from memory, and dictation, in order to give variety to the study. (5) The principles of drawing, and of shades and shadows, should first be taught from regular forms, and with scientific method and accuracy, before the pupils are allowed to draw and shade irregular forms, with no guide but their own observation. All practice should proceed from the simple to the complex, from the regular to the irregular, from the fact to its appearance. (6) The best preparation for truth and beauty of design, is an intimate acquaintance with the greatest works of the past and pres.ent, and a complete mastery of all the methods and vehicles of expression; so that, on the foundation of knowledge and with unhindered skill, the draughtsman and artist, educated by study, and made powerful by practice, may impress on their works the stamp of originality. To illustrate these propositions, programmes of instruction in drawing are here given in outline:

PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOLS.

1st year. The names of geometric forms and lines; drawing straight lines and their combinations into simple forms; also, the same forms from memory. (All work on the slate.)

2d year.-Dictation and memory drawing of geometric patterns; simple designs composed of straight lines and simple curves. (Slate work.)

3d year.-Practice on paper of what has been previously learned; also in drawing, with readiness, from memory and dictation, forms previously drawn from copy. Designing new combinations from copies. 4th year.--Free-hand outline design, geometrical drawing, model drawing of both curved forms and objects bounded by right lines.

5th year.-Drawing ornaments and objects of historical character, as Egyptian lotus forms, Greek vases, etc.; the same to be drawn also from memory; geometrical drawing of a more advanced character.

6th, 7th, and 8th years.-Free-hand drawing and design, geometrical drawing, model drawing (from the solid object), and free-hand perspective (developing ideas in preparation for advanced work), dictation and memory drawing; design with half-tint back grounds. Botanical names and forms. Colors and the first principles of their harmony.

HIGH SCHOOLS.

1st year.-Linear perspective by the use of instruments, parallel; botanical lessons, with diagrams in color, model drawing, from solids, in light and shade, half-tint, cross-hatching and stump. Lessons on architectural styles, without drawings.

2d year. Linear perspective, angular; design in harmonious colors, from flowers and foliage; drawing fruits etc., from flat copies and from casts. 3d year.-Linear perspective, oblique; painting from flowers and fruits; study of the human figure, in light and shade, from copies; drawing foliage from plaster casts; applied design for manufactures, such as carpets, lace, paper-hangings, pottery, glass, frescoing, metal work, etc.

from plants in outline; object drawing in one color, as

4th year.-Lessons in painting landscapes, from nature; drawing the human figure, from casts; lectures in architectural styles, and on schools of painting; also, on the history and practice of industrial art; and on design applied to manufactures.

The principle on which every course should be arranged is, that before attempting to draw anything, the pupil should be made to understand it; that is, to have as clear a conception of it as possible. Hence, in the first year, the young pupil is considerably occupied in simply learning the names of forms, in order to impress them upon his memory. When this principle is observed, that the cultivation of the understanding should precede drawing, the latter will never be difficult or uninteresting.

INDUSTRIAL-DRAWING CLASSES.

I. Instrumental Drawing, embracing the following elementary branches: (1) plane geometrical drawing; (2) projection; (3) perspective; and the following advanced subjects: (1) building, construction, and architectural drawing; (2) machine drawing.

II. Free-hand Drawing, including the representation of objects and ornament from both the flat and the round, the study of light and shade, color, and original design.

In each of these departments, some of the knowledge and practice found in the other, will be beneficial to the student. The following course will be proper for each :

FIRST YEAR'S COURSE.

1st Part. (1) Free-hand outline drawing from copies and blackboard, with exercises in elementary design; (2) plane geometrical drawing, from copies and blackboard.

2nd Part.—(1) Model and object drawing, from copy and solid; (2) perspective drawing (for freehand students); (3) projection (for instrumental students).

SECOND YEAR'S COURSE.

I. Instrumental Drawing. (1) Building construc tion, including the following subjects: joints used in carpentry, door and window framing, construction of floors, partitions, roofs, and staircases, bond in brickwork, stone-work, arches, fire-proof flooring, designs of plans, elevations, working drawings, etc.; (2) machine drawing, including such details, as bolts and nuts, plumber-blocks, screws, wheels, etc.

II. Free-hand Drawing.-(1) The drawing of ornament in outline, from large copies, of foliage and the human figure; shading the same from copies in pencil, crayon, and Indian ink or sepia; designing in halftint, or several tints of one color, drawing from memory and dictation, etc.; (2) shading geometrical solids, shading from the cast and natural objects, applied design for industrial purposes and special subjects for particular branches of business.

For a description of the necessary fittings and apparatus, see SMITH, Art Education, Scholastic and Industrial (Boston, 1873). See also STETSON, Technical Education (Boston, 1876); Modern Art Education, translated from the German of LANGL (Boston, 1875); BUISSON, Rapport sur l'instruction primaire etc. (Paris, 1875).

DRILL

DRILL, a term used in education, particularly in school instruction, to denote the strict routine of exercises required either to train pupils to the ready performance of mental or physical processes, or to impress upon their memory those arbitrary associations of facts or words which are required in many subjects of study. Thus, a certain amount of drill is required in teaching the arithmetical tables, the paradigms and rules of grammar, the spelling of words, and those facts of geography that pertain to the location of places (memorizing maps). Drill requires definite exercises and regular practice in them, continued a sufficient length of time, in order to impart a kind of automatic force to the recollection. Both mind and body, by repetition, acquire fixed habitudes, by means of which thought and muscular action may be accommodated to the performance of acts which at first might have seemed impossible. This is the foundation principle of drill. (See ROTETEACHING.)

DRURY COLLEGE, at Springfield, Missouri, under the control of the Congregationalists, was organized and chartered in 1873. It derives its name from S. F. Drury, of Olivet, Mich., who contributed liberally toward its foundation. It is under the patronage of the American College Society of Boston. The institution comprises a collegiate department, with five courses of four years each (classical, scientific, Greek scientific, Latin scientific, and ladies' course); a preparatory department, with classical and English courses of three years each; a normal department of two years; a model school of three years; and the Missouri Conservatory of Music, chartered in 1875. Both sexes are admitted to all the departments and courses on the same terms, except that the ladies' course (equivalent to that of the best female seminaries) is designed for such young ladies as do not desire to pursue the severer college courses. The library contains 2,000 volumes; the beginning of a cabinet of mineralogy and geology has been made, and a number of specimens of natural history have been secured. The college year is divided into three terms. The regular charge for tuition per term is $15 in the college classes, $12 in the preparatory classes, $8 in the model school, and $6 in the normal department. These charges are remitted in favor of the children of ministers of any denomination who are in active service, and some aid is extended to other deserving students. In 1875-6, there were 11 instructors; the students were distributed as follows: college classes, 35; normal class, 27; classical preparatory, 75; English preparatory, 74; music, drawing, and painting, 23; model school, 31; total, deducting repetitions, 220. There were 5 graduates at the commencement of 1875. The Rev. Nathan J. Morrison, D. D., has been the president from the commencement of the institution. DUBLIN UNIVERSITY. See IRELAND. DULL SCHOLARS, or Dullards, a class of pupils found in every school and class, whose perceptions are deficient in rapidity, and whose

mental powers are sluggish. Such pupils need especially the spur of encouragement, and should never be subjected to blame or derision on account of their slowness. Many teachers often greatly err in dealing with this class of pupils, applying to them such epithets as blockhead, dolt, numbskull, simpleton, dunce, etc. They are, moreover, sometimes neglected by the teacher, who naturally prefers to give attention to those bright, precocious pupils who need but little instruction. The best powers of the teacher, however, are displayed in developing the latent capacities of these dull scholars; and very often it has been found that those who bore the character of dullness in school have risen to great eminence in after life. The great English poet and novelist, Sir Walter Scott, and the illustrious German chemist Liebig are often mentioned as examples of this fact.

DUNCE, a term applied to a pupil who is dull, or slow in learning. The word is supposed to be a corruption of the name of Joannes Duns Scotus, a very learned man, who lived in the latter part of the thirteenth century (died in 1308). From his keen, analytical intellect and acute logic, he was styled doctor subtilis, the subtle doctor. The name of this great scholar, according to some, was applied to a dullard in derision, just as we often ironically call a stupid fellow a Solomon, or a bully a Hector. Trench, however, thinks it became a term of scorn applied to the adherents of the old school-men by the disciples of the new learning, as the latter gained ground during the middle ages. Hence, the expression, "You are a Duns," was a reproach, as implying an advocate or supporter of obsolete and exploded opinions. Butler, in Hudibras thus puns on the word:

"In school-divinity [he was] as able
As he that hight Irrefragable;
A second Thomas, or, at once
To name them all, another Dunce."

DUPANLOUP, Félix Antoine Philippe, bishop of Orleans and the foremost Catholic writer of France, in the nineteenth century, on educational subjects, was born at St. Félix, Savoy, Jan. 3., 1802. He was ordained priest in 1825, attached, for three years, as catechist to the parish of Assumption, appointed in 1837 superior of the diocesan seminary of Paris, and, in 1849, bishop of Orleans. His chief attention has ever since been devoted to the educational interests of the Catholic Church. The petit séminaire of Orleans entered into a lively competition with the state schools; in his own episcopal palace, he opened a new school, and he took an active part in all the educational controversies of the time. He continued, with great energy, the defense of the "liberty of instruction," which the Catholics of France demanded in opposition to the University, and in which he had zealously interested himself even before his appointment as bishop. He disapproved of the agitation begun by Gaume (see GAUME) and others for excluding the pagan classics from Christian schools (see CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN), and was, therefore, violently attacked by the Univers. The con