EAR, Cultivation of the. Recent physi- office, since language, the most efficient means of ological researches appear to leave but little rea- all education, depends upon its exercise. Moral son to doubt that, at birth and for months after- education, no doubt, also begins with the genial ward, the organs of the special senses exist in accents of the maternal voice, both in speech and only a rudimentary form, and that they owe song, as heard by the infant; so that even the their gradual development entirely to the ex- lullabies which soothe it to slumber constitute ternal influences exerted upon them by nature an agency in its development. While, therefore, and society. It is, therefore, not only probable, loud and explosive noises may injure the physical but experimentally demonstrable, that the edu-, organization of the ear of the child. harsh and cation of the senses is more or less efficient ac- angry tones may affect injuriously the developcording to the time at which it begins after birth.ment of its affections and sentiments. All disagreeIn the light of modern experience, it is con- able sensuous impressions are deeper and more sidered by some extremely doubtful whether there durable than those of an opposite character; and, is really any case of actual congenital blindness | hence, when often repeated, they tend to destroy or deafness. The tendency to these defects, the capacity of the ear for the appreciation of doubtless, often exists as an hereditary imper- | beautiful sounds. Otherwise, variety of sound fection, but is scarcely ever of such a nature as is not detrimental to the infant's ear, but on the to be incurable, if discovered and treated properly contrary, beneficial, especially when the source of soon after birth. Hence, except when an organic each sound is, at the same time, presented to the malformation exists, it follows that a systematic sight, or touch, or both these senses. From the and judicious training of the senses, from the time the infant begins to understand simple lanearliest infancy, may remedy most, if not all. guage, usually after the fourth month, especases of such defects as color-blindness, weakness cially if the words are accompanied with mimicry of sight and hearing, etc. Such indeed is the or gesticulation, care should be taken to articulate conclusion derived from the experience gained distinctly. In families in which there is a negliin infant asylums, kindergartens, and intelligent gence in this respect, it will be found that the families. This is an important fact, since it children either never, or with very great difficulserves to correct the notion, so generally enter- ty, acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great tained, that good speakers and singers must be error, quite common in some families and comborn such, and that there are but few persons munities, to repress the natural vociferations of thus naturally endowed. There is, without doubt, children, and to insist on the constant use of low considerable diversity in the sensuous endow- tones in speech. Nature dictates a great deal of ments of different individuals; but, at the same crying, shouting, etc., in order that the lungs time, it is impossible to fix a limit to the im- and vocal organs may be fully developed; but, provement of which every organ of sense is sus- of course, all excess should be restrained, since ceptible by continuous and proper education, and the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air particularly by a cultivation carried on through will not only injure the delicate organs of the several successive generations. As regards the voice, but will have a bad effect upon the moral the ear, this may be considered as historically development of the child, besides incapacitating established; since, but three centuries ago, there him for the perception and appreciation of those were but an exceptional few persons who showed delicate distinctions of sound upon which musical an ability to appreciate, and a still smaller num- harmony and melody depend. To what an exber who were able to reproduce, musical melody tent this nice perception and discrimination of and harmony. Of all the ancient nations, the sound may be cultivated, appears from the fact Greeks alone seem to have been able to enjoy the that, in good kindergartens, a child will learn to diatonic scale (but not the chromatic), and to distinguish blindfolded the voice of any one of a give it expression in their music, other nations hundred comrades, to tell by what means any never having any other than the scale of five one of a hundred different noises is produced, notes (barbaric scale). The progress of musical and to estimate with tolerable accuracy the disart among modern civilized nations and partic- tance of the source of any well-known sound. ularly the diffusion of musical taste among the Very young children may also, by suitable exerpeople are striking illustrations of ear culture, cises, readily acquire the ability to distinguish since this progress could not be effected without the intervals of musical notes, and their position an organic as well as an esthetic improvement. in the scale. By similar kindergarten exercises, even cases of constitutional difficulty in hearing may be considerably alleviated. Thus such a child may be shown how, by closing the mouth and nostrils, the air may be forced into the Eustachian tubes, until the well-known explosive sound of each tympanum follows. After every such exertion, the hearing will be found to become somewhat better, until, by frequent repeti The sense of hearing is the earliest to be developed in infancy, and, at the approach of death, seems to be the last to be extinguished; it is also the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to be aroused on awakening. In reaching objects at a distance, its power is next to that of sight. In the earliest stages of intellectual development, the sense of hearing performs a most important tion, its improvement will be quite decided; because the fine blood-vessels of the organ, in which the circulation had become stagnant, are rendered active; provided, of course, there is no malformation or incurable physical defect in the organ itself. (See SENSES, EDUCATION OF.) EARLHAM COLLEGE, at Richmond, Ind., is controlled by a board of managers appointed by the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends orthodox). It was chartered in 1857; but a boarding-school for instruction in the higher branches had been in operation in the same building for several years previous. The college is supported by the income from an endowment of $55,000, by tuition, and by the proceeds of a farm. There is a classical and a scientific course, each of four years. The preparatory school has a course of two years. Students may pursue selected studies at the discretion of the faculty, but no degree is given except on the completion of one or the other of the regular courses. The degrees are, A. B. for the classical and B. S. for the scientific course. Graduates may receive the second degree (A. M. or M. S. according to the previous course) either on continuing one year at the college in the satisfactory prosecution of post-graduate studies, or, in regular course, at the end of three years on passing a successful examination in some selected studies, or on the presentation of a satisfactory thesis. The college has libraries containing over 4,000 volumes; an observatory supplied with an equatorial telescope, a transit instrument, and an astronomical clock; and a museum of zoology, comparative anatomy, geology, archæology, etc. There are from ten to twelve instructors, including six professors and a principal of the preparatory department. The number of students at present (1876) ranges from 220 to 230 per year, about one-third of whom are college students. The number of graduates, in 1875, was 79. The first president, Prof. Barnabas C. Hobbes, was appointed in 1865; he held the office two years and was succeeded by the present incumbent, Joseph Moore, A. M. ECUADOR been recently commenced, and are constantly There EAST TENNESSEE WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, at Athens, Tenn., under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church. was chartered, in the winter of 1866-7, as the EAST TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY East Tennessee Wesleyan College. The name and State Industrial College, at Knoxville, was changed at the next session of the legislaTenn., non-sectarian, was chartered in 1807. It ture. It was opened in September, 1867. The received a grant of land from the United States main college building is a substantial brick structhrough the state legislature, from which about ture, 70 by 50 feet, and three stories high. The $40,000 was derived; and a further endowment libraries contain about 1,500 volumes. was obtained from the property of Blount Col- is an academic, a preparatory, and a collegiate lege, which was merged in it on condition of its department, the last having a classical and a scienestablishment at Knoxville. It was suspended tific course. There are two terms in the year, and during the civil war, and the college property the cost of tuition varies from $6 to $22 per term, was occupied by the United States army, and according to the department. Deductions are greatly damaged. Exercises were resumed, in made in favor of ministers of the Methodist 1866, in the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb. In Episcopal Church. In 1874–5, there were 7 in1869, the institution received the Congressional structors, 16 collegiate students, 35 preparatory, land grant to the state for the establishment of 30 academic, and 12 music scholars, making a an agricultural and mechanical college, and the total, deducting repetitions, of 86; the number State Industrial College was organized. New of alumni, up to that time, was 27. The Rev. college buildings have been erected, which stand John F. Spence, A. M., is (1876) the president. on an eminence near the city. The college farm of 260 acres is about a mile from the buildings. The libraries contain about 4.000 volumes. The cabinets of geology, mineralogy, and zoology have ECONOMY, School. See SCHOOL ECONOMY. ECUADOR, a republic of South America. having an area of 248,400 sq. m., and a population estimated, in 1875, at 1,850,000. Of these, ECUADOR 55 per cent were whites; 42 per cent Indians; the remainder, negroes and half-breeds. The inhabitants speak the Spanish language and belong to the Roman Catholic Church, the form of worship of which is the only one tolerated in public. After the conquest of the empire of the Incas, the kingdom of Quito was made a presidency of the viceroyalty of Peru. It remained under Spanish rule up to 1822, when it became a part of the republic of Colombia; and, in 1831, became an independent republic under the name of Ecuador. Since then, it has been the scene of numerous revolutions and wars with the neighboring republics. The schools of all grades have been and still are under the control of the church, which, in this republic, has generally wielded a greater power than in any other part of South America. It was especially the aim of the conservative president Moreno (died 1875) to place the entire department of instruction under the immediate di- | rection of the church. In 1864, it was resolved to erect a number of new schools, to be conducted by the Brothers of Christian Doctrine. The district councilors were empowered to raise in advance a part of the taxes for the support of these schools. At the same time, an agreement was entered into between the government and the Society of Jesus, according to which the latter assumed the direction of a number of colegios. How little education is valued, may be seen from the fact that the expenditure for public education, according to the annual budget, amounts to only about 20,000 pesos (1 peso=$0.96.5). Primary Instruction. The schools are at tended almost exclusively by the whites, the halfbreeds, and the mulattoes; while the Indians, who compose the laboring classes in the cities, do not enjoy the advantage of any education at all. The number of public schools, in 1873, was 244, of private schools, 176; and the number of schools supported by corporations was 11, making the total number of primary schools 431. The number of pupils in the public schools was 17,661, the number in private schools 3,966, and in schools supported by corporations 837, making the total number of pupils 22,464. The course of instruction in the public schools comprises reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Secondary, Superior, and Special Instruction. -There were, in 1873, six colleges (colegios nacionales) with 59 professors and 757 students, and one female college with 4 professors and 153 students. The University of Quito comprises four colegios, the Colegio de San Gregorio, founded in 1586 by the Society of Jesus, and invested with the privileges of Salamanca in 1621; the Colegio de Santo Tomas de Aquino, belonging to the Dominicans; the Colegio Mayor with which a seminary is connected, and the Colegio de San Fernando. The revenue of the university amounts to from 4,000 to 5,000 pesos, and the salaries of the professors to 3,950 pesos. In the colegios, the course of study embraces Latin, and sometimes Greek, in addition to the branches taught in the primary schools. The university course comprises the Spanish language and liter ature, Latin, Greek, law, medicine, etc. Special instruction is imparted in the following schools: schools of art and industry with 22 professors; a polytechnic school, with 13 professors and 59 students; a military academy, with 5 professors and 23 cadets; seven seminaries supported by the clergy, with 47 professors und 227 students; an academy of fine arts, with 2 professors and 22 students, and a conservatory of music, with 8 professors and 39 students. In 1872, a prospectus was issued for a school of obstetrics, and also for one of sculpture, to be opened in Quito, under the direction of European professors. An academy of arts and sciences was also to be opened in Quito, and the advantages of the Guayaquil Normal School were to be extended to Indian children.-See SCHMID, Encyclopädie, vol. IX., art. Südamerika; WAPPEUS, Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik, vol. 1; Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1873. EDGEWORTH, Maria, a gifted English authoress, noted for her educational writings, was born at Hare Hatch, near Reading, England, in 1767, and died at Edgeworthstown, Ireland, in 1849. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, who was quite celebrated both as an inventor and an author, and, to some extent, also as an educationist. He was the author, jointly with his daughter, of Practical Education (1798), and published Essays on Professional Education (1809), and a continuation of Early Lessons (1815), published originally by his daughter in 1810. In 1822, Maria Edgeworth published Rosamond, a sequel to Early Lessons, which was followed by Harry and Lucy, the Parents' Assistant (a series of juvenile tales), and Frank; subsequently also Orlandino, which appeared in Chambers's Library for Young People. It was, however, as a writer of fiction that Miss Edgeworth gained her greatest fame. Her novels acquired a high degree of popularity, which, to a considerable extent, they still retain ; and they were widely circulated both in England and in the United States. They were greatly admired by her illustrious contemporaries Scott, Macaulay, and Jeffrey. The latter said, "It is impossible to read ten pages in any of her writings, without feeling, that not only as a whole, but that, in every part, they were intended to do good." "She is the author," said Edward Everett, "of works never to be forgotten; of works which can never lose their standard value as English Classics." In 1820, she completed a Memoir of her father (commenced by him), who died in 1817. There are several editions of her works, which still continue to be reprinted. EDINBURGH, University of. See Scor the growth and development of mind and body, and which especially constitute the theory of education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. This article will embrace only the general consideration of (I) the history of education, and (II) the theory of education, with a reference to sub-titles for fuller information in regard to sub been divided into several departments, according I. History of Education.-The history of education is the history of the institutions, principles, and methods by means of which children and youth of both sexes have been educated, from the earliest period of historic times to the present day. It embraces within its scope an account of the peculiar character which education has assumed among the several nations of the globe, of the rise and development of the different methods of instruction, of the systems and labors of prominent educators, of the divisions and classes of schools, and of the rival and frequently conflicting claims of the family, the church, and the state to a share in the regulation of public instruction. Each of these subjects is treated of in this work under special titles: and the object of this general article can, therefore, only be to present a brief general view, in outline, of the subject, so as to show more clearly the relation of its several departments and topics. The earliest schools which have any claim to a place in a history of education are met with in Egypt, China, India, and Persia. In all these countries, it was the aim of the instructor to train the young so that they might become homogeneous School education, generally called instruction, on account of the more limited character of its scope and the sphere of its operations, is distinguished, according to its grade, into (1) primary instruction, that is, the instruction given in elementary schools (such as the common schools, the primary schools of cities representing only a lower subdivision of primary instruction); (2) secondary instruction, as given in academies, high schools (middle schools); (3) superior in-members of the community to which they bestruction,—as given in colleges and universities; (4) special instruction,-as of the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the imbecile; (5) professional and technical instruction,—as in art schools, law schools, medical schools, military, naval or nautical schools, theological seminaries, schools of architecture, etc., for information in regard to which see the respective titles. longed, the institutions of which were to be preserved and continued by them unchanged. The claims of individuality were, at that early period, unknown; and the principle of blind and slavish submission to the constituted authorities was the basis of all education. There are, however, some marked points of difference. In China, the distinctive features of education characterize it as Education is to be carefully distinguished from family education, in India as caste education, in instruction, the latter being only a subordinate Persia as state education, and in Egypt as priestpart of the great scheme of controlling and ly education. In China, every child is reared in guiding the development of a human being. To absolute obedience to the head of the family, this department of education the term didactics and every family submits as a child to the com(from the Greek word didáŋkɛi, to teach) is often mon father of all, the Emperor. The excessive applied. (See DIDACTICS and INSTRUCTION.) In- veneration of ancestry makes the character of struction is addressed to the intellect or under- the people essentially stationary, and education standing; while education comprehends the whole assumes pre-eminently the character of mechanical nature of man and the various agencies by means training. In India, every child belongs by his of which, in its formative state, it may be affected. birth to one particular caste; and the foremost Its primary object is to form the character either aim of the instruction given is to teach him the by stimulating its development in the normal rights and duties of the caste. The leading prindirection, or correcting tendencies to morbid ciple of Indian education is habit. In Persia, growth. In respect to the scientific principles by every kind of power and authority centers in the which its practical operations should be guided, king; the children belong more to the state than education is a science; in relation to the proper to their parents, and the germs of a strictly namode of performing those operations so as to ren- tional education may, therefore, be found in the der them as effective as possible, it is an art. The institutions of that country. In Egypt, the science of education is a very complex one, inas- priest is the chief representative of education much as its principles must be drawn from many and the only teacher. (See CHina, Egypt, IndiA, different departments of science; superadded to and PERSIA.) which, as its own peculiar sphere of investigation, there is the great body of truths which concern The classic nations of the ancient world, Greece and Rome, began a new period in the EDUCATION history of education. While the oriental child was taught to become a docile member of the family, the caste, the state, or the religion, Greece and Rome conceived the idea of individual education; man was not merely expected to fit himself for the place which the family, the caste, the state, or religion assigned to him, but he was to choose his own vocation, and by aspiring to the highest place of honor in political life, in art, or in science, to advance beyond his ancestors. Mechanical training failed to satisfy those who interested themselves in the cause of education; the first theories of education were developed, and the harmonious development of the body and the mind was held up to the young as the worthiest aim of their youthful ambition. Lycurgus and Solon as lawgivers, Pythagoras and Socrates as practical educators, and Plato and Aristotle as writers on education, propounded and brought into circulation a number of new ideas, with which not only did the older nations of the ancient world have nothing to compare, but which have remained among the most potent agencies in the progressive education of mankind. A beautiful individuality was, to the Greek, the aim of life, and the ideal of education was expressed by the word kazokaadia, the beautiful and the good. The Spartan system of education constituted, to a considerable degree, an exception to this general characteristic of Greek education. The Roman's attention, from his early childhood, was directed to the affairs of a commonwealth which was constantly engaged in war, and those who reared him naturally designed to make him a practical man. The development of a practical individuality became the aim of Roman education. Less time was found for, and less interest felt in, the study of science and art; but there was a notable progress in the appreciation of home education, involving a higher regard for marriage and for a more dignified and freer position of woman in society. In every family, the mother was to begin and the father to continue the work of education, which came to be looked upon as a part of parental duty. Both parents co-operated in nursing, in the minds of their children, the feeling of patriotism; and a part of the education which the young Roman received under the parental roof was the desire to become a useful, honest, and illustrious citizen of the commonwealth. Under these influences, the will was more developed than either the emotional nature or the intellect. The only sciences which interested the Romans were almost exclusively those of a strongly utilitarian character, rhetoric, Roman history, and military science; since every noble and talented youth aspired to become a leading politician or a great general. The characteristic virtue of the ancient Romans, before the decline of the Republic, was stern and inflexible integrity in political life; but all their intellectual and moral aspirations were circumscribed by the narrow horizon of their own nationality, and a due regard for those outside of it appears to have been unknown to them. When an acquaintance with the institu 245 tions of conquered Greece revealed to the Romans a progress in art, science, and literature, which they as yet had not even conceived, and thus awakened a thirst for higher literary culture. the political and social system of the republic had already entered upon the period of its decline. Higher instruction, often imparted by despised slaves, was an inadequate compensation for the decline of home education; and scientific and literary culture proved utterly unable to arrest the flood of corruption which finally overwhelmed the free institutions of Rome. The lines of Horace, so often quoted, have thus an impressive significance: Græcia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes Under the empire, the old landmarks of national education were entirely swept away. Greek tutors, and Greek high schools. at Athens and Constantinople, were expected to supply the highest instruction; but the enervated Roman was no longer able to grasp the ideal of a universal higher education, and the Roman Empire of the West was destroyed by the barbarians without having developed any systems or forms of education. As Roman education, from the foundation of the city to the downfall of the empire, was of a predominantly utilitarian character, Rome never produced any writers on education like Aristotle and Plato; yet the works of Cicero, and especially of Seneca and Quintilian, contain many suggestions of great practical value. A peculiar position is occupied by the Hebrews, the only theocratic people of antiquity. Their children were to be educated, not for the family or caste, not for the state or for personal distinction in art and literature, but to be the obedient servants of the God of Israel. As Jehovah was represented to the people as their sovereign, so he was their only teacher. Education was a corollary of religion. The head of a family was both its teacher and priest, and gave to the children a religious instruction; reading and writing were learned only by the children of the wealthy. The first organized schools were the schools of the prophets for training expounders of the law of Jehovah; after the exile, the rabbis organized a number of schools, to which children from their 5th year could be sent. The instruction was for a long time entirely oral, and at first also limited to the tenets of the Jewish religion; but gradually the course of instruction was enlarged, and, during the middle ages, many Jewish schools obtained a high reputation for the number of scholars whom they educated. The advent of Christianity was a great turning-point in the history of education, no less than in the general history of mankind. For a considerable length of time this was far from being recognized. To the educated and wealthy Romans, especially to those holding a high rank in scholarship and literature, the Christians appeared as a humble, insignificant, and despised sect. The energies of the Christians themselves were so greatly absorbed in the effort to live up |