frame, is used. This is constructed like a blackboard with horizontal grooves. in which the letters can be placed so as to slide along to any required position. By the use of assorted letters, the teacher can construct any word or sentence, building it up letter by letter, as types are set. Many interesting exercises in reading and spelling may be given by means of such an apparatus, the children being required to construct words and sentences themselves, as well as to read those formed by the teacher. The A B C Method of teaching the elements of reading has now, quite generally, been superseded by the Word Method. See CURRIE, Early and Infant School Education, and Principles and Practice of Common School Education; WICKERSHAM, Methods of Instruction. (See WORD METHOD.)

ALUMNEUM, or Alumnat (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish), the name given in Germany to an institution of learning which affords to its pupils board, lodging, and instruction. The first institutions of this kind arose in the middle ages in connection with the convents. Among the most celebrated are those founded by Maurice of Saxony, in the 16th century, at Pforta, Meissen, and Grimma. When the pupils were received and instructed gratuitously, they were expected to perform various services for the school and church, such as singing in the choir. The pupils of these schools were called alumni. (See ALUMNUS.)

ALUMNUS, pl. Alumni (Lat., from alere, to feed, to nourish) originally the name of a student who was supported and educated at the expense of a learned institution (see ALUMNEUM), now generally applied to a graduate of a college or similar institution. The graduates of higher seminaries or colleges for females are sometimes called alumn‹æ.

AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst, Mass., is one of the chief seats of learning in the United States. It was founded in 1821 by the Orthodox Congregationalists, especially for the education of young men for the ministry; but its charter was not obtained till 1825. Its first president was the Rev. Zephaniah S. Moore, who in 1823 was succeeded by the Rev. Ieman Humphrey, to whose strenuous and prudent efforts the college owed much of its success. He continued in office till 1845, when he was succeeded by the Rev. Edward Hitchcock; and, on the resignation of the latter, in 1854, the present incumbent, the Rev. William A. Stearns, D. D., was elected. This institution has been the recipient of very large donations from private persons, and appropriations from the State amounting to upward of $50,000. The college funds amount in the aggregate to more than $650,000. Its charity fund for the gratuitous education of clergymen amounts to about $70,000; and its fund for free scholarships is at least $100,000. The names of the principal donors to the institution are Dr. William J. Walker, to the extent of $240,000; Samuel A. Hitchcock, $175,000; Samuel Williston, $150,000; and a college church was erected a short time

ANALYSIS

ago from funds contributed for the purpose by W. F. Stearns, son of the president. This institution occupies twelve public buildings, besides the president s house, including an edifice for scientific instruction, and the college church. There are also a gallery of art, a cabinet of natural history, containing about 100,000 specimens, and an astronomical observatory. The department for physical training is very efficient. It comprises an extensive and well appointed gymnasium; and, at a certain hour, each class is required to attend, and engage in exercise under the direction of the professor, who is a thoroughly qualified physician. The faculty includes twentythree instructors, and there are several endowed professorships. The number of students in 1874 was about 340. The college library contains more than 30,000 volumes; and those of the societies, about 10,000. There is a scientific as well as a classical course; also a post-graduate course, established in 1874, in history and political science, with especial reference to a "science of statesmanship; while any graduate may arrange to pursue a course of study in any department additional to the college course. The tuition fee is $90 per annum.

ANALYSIS, Grammatical, or Sentential.-By the analysis of a sentence is meant a decomposition of it into its logical elements. Every sentence must either be a single proposition, or be composed of propositions more or less intimately related; and every proposition must contain a subject and a predicate, the former expressing that of which we speak, and the latter, what we say of it. The entire or logical subject must contain a noun or pronoun, either alone or with related words called modifiers or adjuncts, or it may be a phrase or a clause. The entire or logical predicate, in the same manner, must consist of a verb with or without adjuncts. These constitute all the parts, and all the relations, involved in the construction of a sentence. A few words, such as interjections, may be used independently of them. Grammar has been defined as the "art of speaking and writing correctly," or as the "practical science which teaches the right use of language"; and for general purposes this account is, perhaps, sufficiently explicit. It does not, however, truly distinguish grammar from the other arts concerned in teaching the "right use of language," and hence does not correctly point out its peculiar province. From a want of precision in defining the limitations of any art or science, there must necessarily follow a corresponding inaccuracy and looseness in its treatment; since, before we can reason properly as to the best methods of attaining any object, we must clearly conceive what that object is, and carefully distinguish it from all others.

The special province of grammar does not extend beyond the construction of sentences; but it is quite obvious that to use language correctly, those principles and rules must be understood which underlie the proper method of combining sentences so that they may constitute elegant and logical discourse. A person may be sufficiently

present to the eye of the student the analyzed sentence, so as to show clearly the relation of its parts; and, in the rudimental stages of the instruction, these are, without doubt, of considerable utility; but they should not be carried so far as to present to the student a confused mass of loops, lines, curves, or disjointed phrases, far more difficult to disentangle than to analyze, without any such aid, the most involved sentence. | All such devices, it must be remembered, are only auxiliaries to the mind's natural operations, and cannot at all supersede them. Neither should the exercise of analyzing sentences be allowed to degenerate into the mechanical application of its most simple requirements. As the student advances, he will be able to omit more and more of the routine, until he reaches a stage of progress, at which the general structure of the sentence its component clauses and their relations, will be all that he need observe or state. When judiciously and rationally employed, sentential analysis must engender a very important quality of mind, and greatly conduce to clear thinking, intelligent, critical reading, and accurate, terse expression. See MULLIGAN, Grammatical Structure of the English Language (N. Y., 1852); GOOLD BROWN, Grammar of English Grammars, and Institutes of English Grammar, with KIDDLE'S Analysis; WELCH, Analysis of the English Sentence; GREENE, Analysis of the English Language; CLARK, Normal Grammar of the English Language; CRUTTENDEN, Philosophy of Sentential Language; MARCH, Parsing and Analysis; ANDREWS and STODDARD, Latin Grammar.

ANALYSIS, Mathematical. See MATH

EMATICS.

ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACHING. This is the method used by the teacher when he presents to his pupils composite truths or facts, and by means of analysis shows the principles involved, or leads the mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for himself. In this way he teaches principles which the pupil is to apply to the elucidation of many diverse problems. In the synthetic method, the teacher begins with principles, explains their meaning, and shows how they are to be applied. Thus, suppose the pupil is to be taught how to add and subtract fractions. According to the analytic method, the fractions to be operated upon are presented to the pupil's mind, and he is shown, first the difficulty involved, and secondly, how to surmount this difficulty, by (1) finding a common denominator, and (2) by changing the numerator so that the fractions with the common denominator may have the same value as the given fractions. Then the method of addition or subtraction becomes obvious. In this way learning the principle himself by analysis, the pupil is enabled to construct a general rule, and apply it to any given case. In the synthetic method, the pupil would be taught in the first place the nature and use of a common denominator, then the method of reducing fractions to a common denominator, and then to add

ANDREE

See

or subtract fractions by finding a common denominator. If the object of the instruction given were, exclusively, to make the pupil expert in adding and subtracting fractions, the synthetic method would perhaps have some advantage over the analytic; but, since an important part of this object is to train the mind, the analytic method is greatly to be preferred; for (1) it stimulates the mind to greater activity, (2) it teaches it how to investigate for itself, and to discover truth, and (3) it gives it a much clearer knowledge of the fundamental principles involved in the subject taught. Whether the analytic method should be employed and to what extent, is to be determined by a consideration of the nature of the subject taught, and the degree of advancement of the student. In the higher stages of education, much time would be lost by rigorously following this method; and if, in the more clementary stages, the pupil's mind has been thoroughly trained in this way, it will not be necessary to adhere to it when he comes to study the higher branches. At every stage, and in every branch of instruction, however, there will be occasion for the use of both analysis and synthesis; and the skill and judgment of the teacher must be exercised, at every step, to determine which is the appropriate method to be employed. PALMER. The Teacher's Manual (Boston, 1840). ANDREÆ, Johann Valentin, a German clergyman and educator, was born at Herrenberg, in Würtemberg, in 1586, and died in Stuttgart, in 1654. After filling several ecclesiastical positions in the Lutheran church of his country, he became, in 1650, Superintendent General at Babenhausen, and in 1654 at Adelberg. He was a stern and influential opponent of the principles which the Lutheran orthodoxy, at that time, endeavored to carry out in education. He denounced, in particular, the mechanical method of teaching Latin, which then prevailed, as well as the equally mechanical method of catechetical instruction in the public schools; and he is known, in the history of German education, by the reforms which he introduced in these studies. He insisted that no orders should be given to the pupils in a foreign language, that they should not be required to learn anything which they did not understand, and that no explanations should be given to them exceeding their comprehension, or not enlisting their interest. His views on pedagogical and didactical reform are fully developed in the work Reipublicæ Christiana Descriptio (1619), which sketches the constitution of an ideal Christian republic, giving due prominence to the organization of education. Another work, written in his youth, Idea Bona Institutionis, is no longer extant. Andreæ was an intimate friend of Amos Comenius, whose work, Didactica Magna, he earnestly recommended. The autobiography of Andreæ in Latin has been published by Rheinwald (Berlin 1849). See SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik, III, 338; HosSBACH, Andrea und sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1830); HENKE in Deutsche Allgemeine Biographie, art. Andreœ.

ANGLO-SAXON is the current name for the mother-tongue of the modern English language. During the 5th and 6th centuries, tribes from the shores of the North Sea,- Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and others, made conquests and settlements in England. They spoke Low German dialects, and after they were converted to Christianity, Roman alphabetic writing was introduced, and a single literary language came into use through the whole nation. This language they commonly called Anglise, or Englise, i. e. English, but since the 17th century it has been called Anglo-Saxon. Its best period was the reign of Alfred the Great, A. D. 871-901. In the careful study of its literary remains, it is necessary to distinguish three dialects, the Northumbrian, the West Saxon, and the Kentish; and three periods, the early, the middle, and the late; but in this article, our attention will be mainly directed to classic Anglo-Saxon, which is West Saxon of the middle period. This literary language was cultivated mainly by rewriting in it, for the use of the people, the best Latin works of the time on religion, history, and philosophy. King Alfred and his learned assistants thus prepared Gregory's Pastorale; the General History of Orosius, the Ecclesiastical History of Bede, the Consolations of Philosophy of Boethius; and these were followed by many other translations in prose and verse. The language in this way attained accuracy and ease in following Latin compositions, and a higher general cultivation than any other Teutonic tongue of the time. It is a very pure Low German speech, closely akin to the Frisic, Old Saxon, and Dutch. These Low German tongues are most nearly related, on the one side, to High German, and on the other to Scandinavian; and more remotely to Latin, Greek, Slavic, Sanskrit, and the other IndoEuropean or Aryan languages. The AngloSaxon is to be classed with the older inflected or synthetic languages, like the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, rather than with the analytic, or littleinflected, like French and English. The noun has five cases, and three genders; and four declensions growing out of differences in the stems. The adjective is declined as in German, in a definite and an indefinite declension, with two numbers, three genders, and five cases. The personal pronouns are also fully declined in three numbers, having special forms for the dual number in the first and second persons. There are two great classes of verbs, one of which forms the past tense by reduplication, and the other by composition with dide, did. In the first class are five conjugations, arranged according to their root vowels, and from these come most of what are called the irregular verbs of modern English; our regular verbs come from the sixth conjugation. Our suffixes of derivation, our prepositions, and conjunctions are also in great part Anglo-Saxon. The syntax is of course that of a highly inflected language. Some verbs govern an accusative, some a dative or instrumental, some a genitive, some two accusatives, some an accusative and dative, and so on

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as in Latin and Greek. The uses of the modes are also a matter of great nicety. The body of rules for the use of the subjunctive rivals that for the Latin subjunctive. Most of the difficulties of English syntax find their solution in the fact that they are relics of idioms which were general, and are easily understood, in Anglo-Saxon. The laws of sound, including prosody, are noteworthy. The vowel sounds are very susceptible to the influence of adjacent letters. A root a will change to ae, ea, e, o, as one or another letter follows it; and so with the other vowels. It is in this way that the plural of man comes to be men, from mani. And, in general, the changes of the original letters of an English word in inflection are to be explained from the phonetic laws of Anglo-Saxon. The verse, like that of the other early Teutonic nations, is accentual, and marks off the lines by alliteration. The art of poetry was highly cultivated; the scop, or poet, was highly honored, and it was a disgrace to any man not to be able to sing in his turn at the feasts. We have specimens of the old ballad epic_reaching far back into heathen antiquity, the Iliad and Odyssey of the North. There is also a body of Christian poetry in similar verse and in somewhat similar style.

From this sketch of the language and its literature it will appear, that whatever disciplinary advantages are to be gained from the study of an inflected tongue as such, or of a literature introducing us to a new world of thought and manners, are to be gained as well from the study of Anglo Saxon as of Latin or Greek. It has, however, additional and more intimate uses to those who speak and write English, and have English for their foster-mother in literature. It is the mother of our mother-tongue, and the knowledge of it helps us at every step in our study of English grammar and literature, and is essential to any really advanced scholarly knowledge of either. We may, therefore, find a place for Anglo-Saxon in all grades of schools in which language and literature are studied, using it in different ways at different stages of progress.

The study of language must always occupy a chief place in any comprehensive educational scheme. It has two great divisions: (1) as the study of the art of communication, (2) as the study of the record of human thought. Without the art of communication, man cannot live; without access to the accumulated thought of the race, any generation would be savages; without an introduction to the emotions and ideals of the great and noble which are embodied in literature, any generation would lapse toward moral idiocy.

Common Schools. The Anglo-Saxon is no longer spoken, and it would be hardly worth while to learn to speak it; but in learning to speak and write English we need to know much of it. The power to speak well is founded on familiarity with choice idioms and synonyms. These are learned in connection with the history of the formation and meanings of words, and especially in English, of our Anglo-Saxon words.