with actual objects; and in this manner a clear idea is given of those processes which, merely by abstract statements of the truths, would scarcely be apprehended at all. Of course, the teacher should be careful not to carry the use of such apparatus beyond its proper limits; since the pupil's mind is gradually to be accustomed to conceive clearly the truth of abstract propositions without regard to their concrete applications. Every stage or grade of school instruction must have its appropriate apparatus. Infant instruction requires a great number and variety of simple apparatus (gifts) in order, by natural methods, to aid the development of the child's mind. (See KINDERGARTEN.) The primary school should be supplied with a numeral frame, blackboards, slates, and pencils for the use of the children, a box of forms, spelling and reading charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and, when elementary geography is taught, simple maps and a small globe. For this purpose, one that may be divided into hemispheres (Hand Hemisphere Globe) is best; since by means of it the relation of the planisphere maps to the globe may be clearly shown. (See GLOBES.) A simple relief globe is also of great service at this stage. Other ingenious and attractive apparatus has been devised to aid the work of the primary school teacher, to which a special reference is not needed. In the more advanced stages of instruction, the use of any other than the ordinary apparatus, such as the blackboard, maps, globes, etc., becomes less and less necessary, except in the teaching of certain special subjects; as higher arithmetic, mensuration, astronomy, and other departments of natural science. For such pur poses, the cube-root blocks and other geometrical solids, a tellurian, an orrery, etc., will be of great value. Charts of physiology, history, etc., are scarcely to be dispensed with. In the teaching of natural science, very expensive and complicated apparatus is not at first required Indeed, the simpler it is the better; since the use of such appliances will incite the pupil himself to experiment with those simple contrivances which his own powers of invention will enable him to devise. Thus the use of the lever may be just as well explained by means of a pen-holder or a pointer as by a polished steel rod specially constructed for the purpose. Nothing marks more fully the ability of the teacher than adroitness in availing himself of all common resources for the purpose of illustration. Some of the most important dis overies in physical science have been made with very rude apparatus. In the use of apparatus to illustrate scientific facts, as of the globe, tellurian, or orrery for the purpose of teaching astronomy, it should always be borne in mind that such contrivances cannot supersede the study of nature itself. Cumbrous and complicated machinery, without an attentive observation of the natural phenomena which they are intended to explain, rather serve to give false notions than to impart correct ideas of the actual facts. The latter must be clearly grasped by the mind as facts before their illustration is attempted ARABIAN SCHOOLS by means of artificial contrivances. This depends upon an important principle which the teacher should be careful to recognize and apply. (See BLACKBOARD, and NUMERAL FRAME.) APPORTIONMENT. See SCHOOL FUND. ARABIAN SCHOOLS. The peninsula of Arabia, situated between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, has an area of 1,218,798 square miles, and a population estimated at 5,000,000. Of late, the Arabs have been of but little account in the annals of education as well as in political history. In former centuries, on the other hand. they occupied, for a considerable time, a prominent position. Arabia was the birthplace of Islamism, which, in its doctrinal and ethical peculiarities, bears the most evident marks of the people among whom, and the country in which, it originated. With the rapid spread of this religion, the Arabs became a powerful people, extending their political rule far beyond their original borders. Large empires were founded in Asia, Africa, and Europe; and science and the arts kept pace in their development with the increase of political power. The Arabian schools of the caliphate, and, later, those founded by the Moors, in Spain, not only attained a worldwide reputation, but, for a time, were generally recognized as eclipsing all other literary institutions. The prosperity of these schools began during the rule of the dynasty of the Ommiyades. These monarchs transferred their residence to Damascus, the capital of Syria, which at that time was a chief seat of Greek literature, appointed many Greeks and Syrians as surveyors, architects, and physicians; and brought the Arabian mind into contact with the civilization of the Greeks and the Syrians. The dynasty of the Abbassides, which succeeded that of the Ommiyades in 750, were still more instrumental in the promotion of science and literature among the Arabs. A large number of Greek authors were translated into Arabic; and in medical literature the Arabs became so proficient, that through the middle ages they were regarded as the highest authorities. Soon the Arabian schools were also regarded as superior to all others in mathematics and astronomy. A translation of Aristotle had a far reaching influence upon the further development of the Arabian mind. The teachings of Aristotle not only became the basis of Arabic philosophy, but through the influence of the Arabian schools, the study of this great Greek philosopher became popular among the Jews in Spain and, subsequently, generally among the Jews and Christians of Europe. The highest prosperity was attained by the Arabian Schools in Spain. In the high schools of Cordova, Toledo, Salamanca, and Seville, nearly all branches of human knowledge, Mohammedan theology and law, mathematics, astronomy, history and geography, grammar and rhetoric, medicine and philosophy, were taught. In these schools, Jewish, Mohammedan, and Christian teachers worked harmoniously together. The students lived in colleges, and, from time to time, had to pass examinations. The teachers sometimes employed substitutes. In the ARCHEOLOGY lower schools, which were mostly connected with mosques, the pupils often received their clothing and board gratuitously. The fame of the Arabian schools in Spain attracted students from all parts of Christian Europe, who were anxious to acquaint themselves with the Greek and Arabic literature and the Aristotelian philosophy. Among the many celebrated men who studied there, was the learned Gerbert, who became pope under the name of Sylvester II. Among the results which these stulents brought with them from the Arabian schools, were the Arabic numbers, now in general use in the civilized world. At the close of the 10th century, the Arabian schools in Spain began to decline, and the downfall of the caliphate of Bagdad, in 1258, extinguished the fame of their Asiatic schools. ! on that subject is the Handbuch der Archæologie ARCHITECTURE. See FINE ARTS. HOUSE. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, an independent state of South America, area 841,000 sq. m., or, if we add the territory which is claimed by both the Argentine Republic and Chili, 1,000,000 sq. m.; population, according to the census of 1869, 1,879,410. The republic is growing rapidly, the increase of population from 1836 to 1869 amounting to 146 per cent. Since 1863, immigration has begun to assume large proportions. While. from 1863 to 1866, it averaged annually little more than 10,000, it reached, in 1870 and the following years, 40,000. The foreign element is especially large in the city and province of Euenos Ayres, and a considerable number of prominent positions in the literary institutions of the country are occupied by foreigners. Almost the whole native population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church; but the immigrants from the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and Switzerland have established a number of Protestant congregations and schools. To these a few native congregations have been added by the Methodist missionaries from the United States. There is a marked difference between the population of the towns, and that of the country. The former are generally civilized, and take a profound interest in education; but the gauchos, or the horsemen of the plain, think but little of education and civili In Arabia, at present, there is little education deserving the name. Among the Bedouins, there are no schools, and those that exist in the towns and villages are only of a very elementary character, generally connected with the mosques, and giving instruction in reading, particularly of the Koran, writing, and the rudiments of arithmetic. In the schools connected with the mosques, which are public schools, the poorer children are taught gratuitously; but besides these schools, there are private seminaries for the instruction of children of the higher and middle classes. A private teacher for children and young slaves is no uncommon part of the domestic establishments of distinguished families. There is no public provision for the education of women. In some of the larger towns and cities, there are colleges and professional schools, in which mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc., are taught. One of the chief studies is that of the Arabic, to enable the scholars to read the Koran and the commentaries upon it, of which there are several; since these are written in a dialect differing in some respects from that now in general use. See SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik, vol. 1. ARCHEOLOGY (from apxaios, ancient, and żóyo, knowledge, science) denotes properly the science of antiquities. In the widest sense of the word, it would embrace the history, mythology, political institutions, religion, commerce, industry, literature, and fine arts of ancient times, but it is now more generally used in a restricted sense. Some writers, especially in America, apply it to the researches into the primeval period of man, and, in particular, into the history, customs, and remains of the primitive inhabitants of a country. Thus the Indians in the United States and the Celts in Great Britain, have become the sub-zation. jects of profound archæological research.-In Germany the term is now more frequently used to denote the science of the monuments which are left to us from ancient times, and especially from Greek, Etruscan, and Latin antiquity. As the ancient monuments contain a vast amount of information, not to be derived from classical literature, archæology is regarded as an important auxiliary to the science of classical philology. The founder of archæology as a special science was Winckelmann; and the most famous work The territory of the Argentine Republic, after being occupied by the Spaniards, formed a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru till 1776, when the Viceroyalty of La Plata was erected. The war of independence against Spain began in 1810, and was successfully ended in 1812. In 1813, a Sovereign Assembly was convoked; and in 1817, the independence of the United Provinces of La Plata was formally declared. Like the other republics of Spanish America, the country suffered much from civil wars. From 1852 to 1860, 38 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC ARISTOTLE Buenos Ayres was separated from the confedera- | new minister of public instruction, Dr. Nicolas tion of the other provinces, and formed an in- Avellaneda, in his first report to the congress dependent commonwealth. More recently, the (1869), earnestly advocated sweeping reforms; progress of the country has been greater and more and the work of carrying out these reforms was rapid than that of most of the other South begun energetically. For the year 1869, $115,000 American republics. was voted for the purpose of encouraging priAs early as 1605, the Jesuits established the mary instruction; for 1870, $95,000, and for 1871 university of Cordova, which soon became the $215,000. In 1871, a law was also passed, crealiterary center of all the territory lying in the ting a special and independent fund for the purbasin of the La Plata river. Of course, instruc- poses of primary instruction, distributing the tion during the 17th and 18th centuries was proceeds among the various provinces in proporentirely in the hands of the clergy, especially the tion to the efforts which they themselves might Jesuits; and very little was done in the way of make. This law took effect in January 1873. primary instruction. After the expulsion of the In 1872, primary instruction was given in 1088 Jesuits, in 1767, the university passed into the public and 566 private schools. The children of hands of the Franciscans and greatly declined. school age (6 to 15) numbered 468,987, while Though, after the establishment of national inde- the number of those attending schools was pendence, there were not wanting those who fully 97,549. The number of teachers was, male appreciated the importance of education, and 1558, female 1408. The expenditure for primary sought to devise plans for its future development, instruction in the same year was $1,564,350. In the progress at first was very slow. The active August 1871, the first national normal school progress of education dates from the adoption of was established at Paraná. It had, in 1872, 285 the constitution of Sept. 1850, which still rules students and 6 professors. The first principal the country. Among the first provisions, is one of the school was Dr. Geo. A. Stearns. - The for securing primary education in every province only national university, at Cordova, was reorof the republic, making this an essential obliga-ganized, in 1870, by President Sarmiento, who tion. To the general government was given the established a number of new chairs, and called power to dictate plans of general and university from Germany professors of chemistry, physics, education; and a special ministerial department and botany, and from the United States a distinof public instruction was created. Such, how-guished professor of astronomy. In 1872, the ever, was the indifference of the people, that the government, in order to carry out its plans of secondary education, was compelled not only to offer instruction, books, and all other necessaries free, but also to pay the pupils for the trouble of attending school and studying their lessons. The National College of Buenos Ayres was founded shortly after the adoption of the present constitution. Scholarships, under the name of cecas, were established, giving to the student a monthly allowance of from ten to fifteen dollars in gold. About the same time, three other provincial institutions, the College of the Uruguay in the province of Entre Rios, and the College and the University of Cordova, were nationalized and placed upon a similar basis. Up to 1868, there were established five other similar institutions in the provinces of Tucuman, Salta, Catamarca, San Juan, and Mendoza; and, in 1868, five others were added in San Luis, La Rioja, Jujuy, Santiago, and Corrientes. In 1872, there were thirteen colleges, with 3697 students and 162 professors. The colleges are visited by an inspector of national colleges, who is himself a government employé. In 1865, the national government took its first step in favor of primary instruction. distributing $22,000 in gold among the various provinces, for the purpose of promoting a popular movement in this direction. In 1866 and 1867, the same amount was voted by the national congress for this purpose. In August 1868, began the administration of President Sarmiento, who has done more for the promotion of education than any other statesman of South America. The progress made since then is wonderful. The | | university numbered 14 professors and 103 students. The university of Buenos Ayres is a provincial institution. It was organized in 1822 by Rivadavia, and was, at first, only a law school; but, owing to the zeal of its rector, Dr. Juan Maria Gutierrez, chairs of mathematics, experimental physics, and chemistry were soon afterwards added. Its course of instruction resembles that of French institutions; the museum has been for many years under the direction of the distinguished German naturalist, Dr. Burmeister. -See Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1872 and 1873; LE ROY, in SCHMID'S Encyclop., art. Sudamerica; BURMEISTER, in PETERMANN, Die südamerikanischen Republiken Argentina, Chile, Paraguay und Uruguay in 1875 (Gotha, 1875). ARISTOTLE, one of the most illustrious teachers and philosophers of either ancient or modern times, was born in 384 B. C. at Stagira, a Greek colony of Macedonia, near the mouth of the Strymon. From his birthplace he is often called "the Stagirite." His father, Nicomachus, was a distinguished physician and friend of the Macedonian king Amyntas II.; and from him Aristotle received the first instruction. Having lost his parents, he went at the age of seventeen to Athens, where he was for twenty years a pupil of Plato. His great teacher used to call him, on account of his restless study and his thirst for knowledge, the philosopher of truth and the intellect of his school. Subsequently, however, an estrangement arose between them, owing chiefly to the radical differences in their philosophical and educational systems. While Plato was a thorough idealist, Aristotle was just as fully a ARISTOTLE realist and the father of experimental science. | crippled should not be brought up at all. the fifth year of age, children should not be occupied in hard labor; on the other hand, however, they should not remain inactive, but have suitable exercises in plays adapted to their age. During this time, as well as during the two following years, education by means of habit takes place, as children observe what they subsequently have themselves to perform. Education by means of instruction begins in the 7th year of age and lasts to the 21st. This time is divided into two periods, the one extending from the 7th year to the age of puberty (about the 14th year). the other from the 14th to the 21st. Education by habit during this period continues, but the chief work is done by instruction. As a general principle, it must be observed, that a state can only exist if children are educated in accordance with the existing constitution; in democratic commonwealths, in which all in turn may rule or be ruled, it is, therefore, of importance that boys should be taught obedience, for only those who have learned how to obey will be able to rule. In regard to the subjects in which instruction should be given, three classes should be distinguished, (1) that which is necessary and useful for life, (2) that which leads to ethical virtue, and (3) that which, going beyond these serves, the highest or theoretical aims. In things pertaining to the ordinary occupations of life, the young are to be instructed only so far as such occupations are becoming to a free man. Every mechanical work, every kind of servile or menial labor, and especially every Aristotle's method of teaching was essentially thing that might injure the body, is to be avoided. analytic. Proceeding from the concrete, he tried The fine arts should be practiced with a view to to derive general ideas from a number of ob- general culture; but no special excellence should served facts and phenomena; and his entire phi- be aimed at. In regard to ethical virtues, losophy is based on the principle that all our children must especially be taught to be considerknowledge must be founded on the observation of ate and temperate, in order that the exertions facts. Pedagogy, according to Aristotle, must be necessary to attain self-control may lose their founded on principles derived from the knowl- original unpleasantness by means of habit. Fiedge of man. The highest goal of all human nally, there are for ethical as well as theoretical activity is evdarovia, happiness, both for the in- education, certain instructional means, namely dividual and for the state. This dayovia is reading and writing gymnastics. music, including based on virtue, which is acquired by the perform- rhythmics and poetry, and occasionally also drawance of moral actions. As man is a social being, ing. The first and the last of these serve also destined to live in society, the development of for the necessities of life; and care should, therevirtue in general is dependent upon political fore, be taken that the supreme aim of a noble life. The object of the state is to establish the education be not infringed upon. The instruction complete happiness of families and communities, in drawing, therefore, should be given in such a and the preservation of the state depends on an way as to enable the youthful mind to undereducational system conformable to the laws and stand and criticise the works of plastic art. constitution. The same education will not pro- Gymnastics educate the youth in manliness, duce the same virtues in different persons; for and give to the body health and beauty. That the formation of character in each person is de- which is properly athletic, and especially every pendent on three different things,-nature, habit, thing that leads to rudeness and ferocity, should and instruction. It must be the aim of habit be avoided, a point of view which the Spartans, and instruction to develop the peculiar faculties in their otherwise excellent educational system, which nature has implanted in each individual. somewhat lost sight of. Before the age of puIn the education of a child, as it is of the great-berty, only easy exercises should be practiced, and est importance that its body be, from its birth, as perfect as possible, care should be taken that the parents be suitably matched, and that women during their pregnancy receive substantial food, and be preserved as much as possible from mental agitation. Children who at their birth are all violent exertions that might impede natural growth, should be avoided. After attaining the age of puberty, boys may devote three years to other branches of instruction; then more difficult exertions and privations may be practiced; and during this time mental occupations should receive less attention; for the activity of the mind, treatment of this branch of instruction, the disis impeded by the exertions of the body, and the activity of the body by the exertions of the mind. Musical education deserves special attention on account of its ethical influence. Music more than any other art, is the art of imitation, and reflects in the soul of the hearer, in a manner both attractive and instructive, the various affections and emotions of the mind. The Doric melody is specially recommended, as keeping the right mean between passionate excitement and womanish weakness. The last class of subjects to be taught in the instruction of youth, are those which serve for theoretical purposes, or for the acquisition of the so-called "dianoetical virtues, which are only to be found in the more intelligent class of men. These subjects are the pure sciences, as mathematics, dialectics, and philosophy. The highest of all practical sciences, political economy, is not a fit subject for the young, as they are too inexperienced in the actions of life on which political science is based.-Like the educational theories of Plato and other Greeks, the theories of Aristotle almost exclusively refer to free-born youth. But little attention is paid to the education of the female sex and the working classes; and still less is given to the education of slaves. Aristotle recommended, however, that the moral and intellectual improvement of the slaves should be cared for. Among the works of Aristotle still extant, the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics contain his views on education. On the educational system of Aristotle, see SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik, vol. 1; and ONCKEN, Die Staatslehre des Aristoteles, 2 vols., 1870-1875.- See also Aristotelis Ethica Nicomachea, edited by J. E. T. ROGERS, (Lond., 1874); and the same, translated by R. WILLIAMS, (Lond., 1874); The Politics (Greek text, with English notes), by RICHARD CONGREVE, (Lond., 1874); The Ethics, with Essays and Notes, by SIR A. GRANT, (Lond., 1874); GROTE, Aristotle (Lond., 1872.) ARITHMETIC (Gr. αριθμητική from αριθμός, number), the science of numbers. This subject occupies a prominent place in the curriculum of all elementary schools, both primary and grammar, as well from its educational or disciplinary, as its practical value. On a fair estimate, not less than one-fourth of the pupil's time, for the first eight or ten years of his school life, is given to the study of this subject; but the results are too often quite inadequate to this large expenditure of time, the most that can generally be claimed being a tolerable familiarity with the processes of the fundamental rules, common fractions, and denominate numbers, with a very imperfect knowledge even of the processes of decimal fractions, proportion, evolution. and the business rules of arithmetic. Any such knowledge of the subject as enables the student to give a clear exposition of the reasons for the various processes, or as is required to render him trustworthy in ordinary business computations, is far from being the usual attainment. This arises, in part at least, from a fundamental error in the general sociation, to a great extent, of mental from written arithmetic; whereas they should be so combined as to constitute only different exercises of the same subject. Quite within the memory of some of our living educators, the text-books of arithmetic generally in use were simply single books of definitions, rules, and examples. Such were Ostrander's, Pike's, Dabol's, etc. These were succeeded by two classes of text-books,-one, called Mental Arithmetics, of which Colburn's is a type; and the other, such as presented an attempt to explain the reasons of the processes involved in the different rules. Of the latter, Adams's New Arithmetic affords a fair example. Following these two lines, the science has been practically divided into two; and so diverse are these in their methods, that a pupil may be quite expert in one, and almost entirely ignorant of the other. If, in addition to this, the fact is considered that the text-books in the course have been multiplied until there are now two books in mental arithmetic, and three in written, in several of the series in general use, the reason for the length of time consumed on this subject in our public schools will be obvious. But there is still another cause which operates with considerable force; that is, the cumbering of our text-books with so many subjects that are utterly useless to the student. No branch of business requires a knowledge of greatest common divisor, least common multiple, circulating decimals, or duodecimals. It is indeed important that a pupil should know how to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms; but no ordinary case requires a knowledge of the process for finding the g. c. d., nor are we accustomed to use it. For the process itself we have no use until we reach higher algebra, and the demonstration of the process is quite too intricate for the ordinary pupil in elementary arithmetic. Again, no one uses the processes of alligation alternate; and but few indeed of the great mass of our school children can comprehend the conditions which give rise to much of our business arithmetic. It is not intimated that such problems as those which arise in stocks, arbitration of exchange, general average, etc., should not have a place in an arithmetical course, but only that they do not belong in the course for the masses. There are other topics, more elementary and more generally useful, to which the time of these should be given. And lastly, on this topic, of what conceivable use are many of the examples which occupy so much space in our books, and so much time in the course? Take the following as specimens: I bought a hat, coat, and vest, for $34; the hat cost. 3 of the price of the coat, and the vest of the price of the hat: what was the cost of each? = One-half of A's money of B's; and the interest of of A's and of B's money, at 4 per cent for yr. 3 mon. is $18: how much has each? 2 but B, by spending $30 per annum more than A, at the end of 8 years finds himself $40 in debt; what is their income, and what does each spend per annum? A and B have the same income; A saves of his; But it is said by some that these things are necessary as mental gymnastics. However ap |