46

school law was amended, constituting the system as it now exists. School System. The governor of the territory is ex officio superintendent of public instruction, and apportions the school fund among the several counties, according to their respective school population, consisting of children between the ages of six and twenty-one years. It is made his duty to visit and inspect the schools as often as once in each year. The probate judges of the several counties are ex officio superintendents of public schools for the same. They are appointed by the governor, and hold their respective offices for two years. A tax of 35 cents on each $100 is levied in the several counties for the maintenance of schools, and a tax of 15 cents on $100 for the whole territory. The money is divided in proportion to the school attendance. Each district may levy additional taxes by a vote of two thirds of the district. Education is made compulsory; that is, parents or guardians can be compelled to send their children sixteen weeks during the year to some school, when within two miles of their residence, or have them instructed

at home.

Educational Condition.-The schools of Arizona are all of a primary grade; and teachers receive from $100 to $125 a month, males and females receiving an equal salary. According to the report of Gen. Safford, of Dec. 21st, 1875, there were in the territory 2,508 children between the ages of six and twenty-one, of whom 598 attended public schools. The receipts for the preceding year were $28,759.92, and the disbursements were $24.151.96.

This report stated that, under the existing school law, the free school system had been made a success, and that ample means were afforded by which every child in the territory might obtain the rudiments of an education.

ARKANSAS. This state was originally a portion of the territory of Louisiana, purchased from the French government in 1803. It remained a part of that territory until 1812, when Louisiana being admitted as a state, it became a part of the Missouri territory, which was organized in that year; and so continued till 1819, when it was organized as a separate territory. It was admitted into the Union as a state in 1836. Educational History.-The constitution of 1836 contained a declaration in favor of education to the effect that " as knowledge and learning, generally diffused through the community, are essential to the preservation of free government," it should be the duty of the general assembly to provide for the sale of lands donated to the state by the general government for educational purposes, and to apply the money received therefrom, to the establishment and support of schools. In accordance with this provision of the constitution, the legislature passed certain acts prescribing the manner of disposing of the school lands, which acts are, substantially, still in force. Two provisions of this law are worthy of special notice, on account of their disastrous consequences. The first was, that, upon

the petition of a majority of a township, the county commissioner should sell the sixteenth section, in forty-acre tracts, to the highest bidder, one-fourth of the purchase money being payable in cash, and the balance, within eight years, in installments. The second was, that the county commissioner should loan the school moneys in his hands to parties who would give satisfactory notes to secure their payment with interest. The practical operation of the law was as follows: A, B, and C purchased a sixteenth section, say January 1st; A and B being security for C's notes for deferred payments, B and C for A's notes, and A and C for B's notes. Each party paid the school commissioner, say five hundred dollars, as his first payment, and took his receipt. The same day, they each borrowed five hundred dollars from the school fund of the county, thereby virtually borrowing from the school commissioner the money to make the first payment on the lands. The notes given were made payable in "lawful money of the United States"; but, after the secession of the state, payments were made in confederate money, and purchasers of school lands were not slow to complete their payments in that currency at par. During this period, the state auditor was the chief executive school officer, and made his report to the governor. The last school report, under the ancien régime, was made by William R. Miller, state auditor, to Governor Rector, who held office at the time of the secession of the state. In its printed form, it consisted of one leaf of a book about as large as Webster's Spelling Book, and states that there were then but two public schools in the state. Evidence from other sources shows that, by the peculiar system of financiering described above, by loss in confederate money and Arkansas war bonds, and from the usual casualties incident to a state of civil war, a very large proportion of the sixteenth-section and other school lands of the state was squandered, without creating any considerable permanent school fund. Of that which was created, the sum of $8,000, the last remnant, was invested in the purchase of medicines for the confederate troops; and the medicines were lost on a steamer which was wrecked on Brazos river, in Texas.

Two provisions of the Constitution of 1868 related to public schools. Section I. of Article VI. provided that "The executive department of this state shall consist of a governor, etc., and a superintendent of public instruction, all of whom shall hold their several offices for a term of four years." Article XI. related to education, and its several sections provided, (1) that the general assembly should establish and maintain a system of free schools for the gratuitous instruction of all persons between the ages of five and twenty-one years; (2) that the supervision of such schools should be intrusted to a superintendent of public instruction; (3) that a state university should be established; (4) that a school fund should be created from the sales of school lands, escheats, estrays, grants, gifts, one dollar capitation tax, etc.; (5) that no part of the.

48

ARKANSAS

ARKANSAS UNIVERSITY

Almost the only encouraging feature of the period covered by Superintendent Smith's second report, was the opening of the Arkansas Industrial University (Jan. 22d, 1872), in the town of Fayetteville. Mr. Smith was succeeded in the office of superintendent by Joseph C. Corbin, who entered upon the duties of his office in 1872; and the only report which he issued was for the year ending September 30th, 1873. Prior to this, the general assembly passed a new revenue law, which was construed to repeal the provision of the former law appropriating two mills on the dollar out of the ordinary revenue of the state for school purposes. This reduced the amount of the semi-annual apportionment from $210,000 to $55,000, all of which was in state scrip, worth at the time about 35 per cent. The same legislature abolished the office of circuit superintendent, and substituted that of county superintendent. It also limited the local tax to a maximum of five mills; and a decision of the supreme court made even this tax payable in state scrip. The following are the principal items of the school statistics for the year 1873: Attendance of pupils.. Number of teachers. Number of school-houses. Number of teachers' institutes. Amount paid teachers...

59,587 1,481 1,035 26 .$259,747.08

Revenue raised for school purposes...$258,456.09 Amount of expenditures...

.$318,997.77

A new constitution was adopted in 1874,of which the following are the chief provisions in regard to education:-(1) That the state shall ever maintain a general, suitable, and efficient system of free schools, whereby all persons in the state, between the ages of six and twenty-one years, may receive gratuitous instruction;" (2) That no school money or property shall be used for any other purpose; (3) That the general assembly shall provide for the support of common schools by a tax, not to exceed the rate of two mills on the dollar, on the taxable property of the state; a capitation tax of one dollar, and a local tax not to exceed five mills on the dollar; (4) That the supervision of the schools shall be vested in "such officers as may be provided for by the general assembly." Under this last provision, the duties of superintendent of public instruction were

wise provided by law."

Elementary Instruction. The only common schools in the state at present (Nov. 1875) are those of the city of Little Rock, which were opened September 13th, 1875. The sole reliance of the mass of the citizens for educational advantages is, therefore, upon private schools, of which a large number were opened at the beginning of the school year. No school report has been rendered since that of Superintendent Corbin, in 1873, as the necessary duties of the secretary of state have rendered an active supervision of the schools impossible, and the returns from the local officers are very imperfect.

Normal Instruction.· The chief provision for the training of teachers in the state is the normal department of the State Industrial University. A course of two years and one of three years have been arranged, the former embracing all the studies likely to be taught in any of the common schools, and the latter, those of the high schools. Male applicants for admission are required to be 16 years of age, and females 14. A training school is operated in connection with this school. Besides this, Quitman College, in Van Buren county, is a normal school for the training of colored teachers. There is also a state teachers' association.

Superior Instruction.-The most prominent of the higher educational institutions of the state are the Arkansas Industrial University, at Fayetteville (q. v.), and St. John's College, at Little Rock (q. v.); the latter of which is under the control of the masonic fraternity.

Special Instruction. The Arkansas DeafMute Institute and the Arkansas Institute for the Education of the Blind, both at Little Rock, are the only institutions for special instruction. The former was incorporated as a state institution in 1868. The latter, the same year, was removed from Arkadelphia to Little Rock. financial embarrassments of the state have greatly impeded the progress and efficient operation of these institutions.

The

Educational Journal, etc.-The last educational journal published in the state was the Arkansas Journal of Education, which suspended publication in 1872; and the only works on the schools of the state are the three educational reports of the state superintendents.

While the present educational condition of Arkansas is by no means cheering, it is not quite hopeless. The decadence of the school system. which a short time ago was so promising, is the result of financial, political, and social evils and misfortunes that have afflicted the state from its earliest history. Many of these evils, however. are already things of the past, of which only the effects remain. Under the present administration, much has been done towards developing the natural resources of the state; and there is no doubt that, in a few years, its educational prosperity will be restored.

ARKANSAS INDUSTRIAL UNIVERSITY, at Fayetteville, Arkansas, was provided

ARMY SCHOOLS

for by an act of the state legislature in 1868, but was not opened until January 22., 1872. The law regulating the institution provides for 327 beneficiaries who are entitled to four years' free tuition. The value of the grounds, buildings, etc. is $180,000. The buildings will accommodate four hundred students, and consist of a brick edifice five stories high, 214 feet in length, with a depth in the wings of 122 feet, with five large and several small halls, and thirty classrooms. The report of the university for 1874 showed an attendance of 321 students, in its various departments, under the instruction of seven professors and three other instructors. The institution includes a preparatory and a normal department, a college of engineering, and a college of general science and literature. A college of agriculture and a college of natural science, with a school of military science, and a school of commerce, are also provided for; and an experimental farm for the agricultural college has been secured. The university library is as yet quite small. Gen. Albert W. Bishop is the president of the

institution.

ARMY SCHOOLS. SEE MILITARY SCHOOLS. ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a German patriot and author, was born Dec. 26., 1769, at Schoritz on Rügen, and died Jan. 29., 1860, at Bonn. He was appointed, in 1805, professor at the university of Greifswalde; but he wrote violently against Napoleon and, therefore, fled, after the battle at Jena, in 1806, to Sweden. In 1809, he returned, and henceforth took a prominent part in the national movement in Germany which led to the wars of liberation (1813 to 1815), and the overthrow of the French rule in Germany. In 1818, he was appointed professor of history at the university of Bonn; but, in the next year he was retired in consequence of his liberal sentiments. In 1840, he was re-instated by the new king Frederick William IV.; and, in 1848, he was a member of the National Assembly of Frankfort, which attempted the reconstruction of a united Germany. Arndt is chiefly famous in Germany as one of the foremost promoters of patriotism. One of his songs, Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland? was long regarded as the most popular national hymn; but was superseded in popular favor, during the Franco-German war, by Die Wacht am Rhein. Some of Arndt's numerous works are of a pedagogical character, the most important of which is Fragmente über Menschenbildung (Altona, 1805), which explains the principles of a rational education of man in accordance with the dictates of his nature. In opposition to the ideas of Rousseau, he insisted that the essence of man must not be sought in the sensuous nature of the isolated individual, but in his spiritual part, and in his relations to parents, family, society, and his native country. From this point of view, Arndt contends, with Pestalozzi, that the mother should be the first teacher of the child, and that her instruction should proceed from the concrete. He represents love, necessity, and freedom as the three powers which co-operate in the education

of man. The work of these three great powers is conditioned by the bodily and spiritual development of the pupil. In childhood, it is chiefly the power of love, represented by the mother, which moulds the young mind, and instills into it the first notions of God, man, and life. The power of necessity must curb and discipline the vehemence of boyhood, and teach the habit of diligence. At last, in the age of ripe youth, love and necessity coalesce into the spirit of freedom, or self-control, which is the completion of every harmonious education. A few years later, Arndt gave an exposition of the same principles, with special reference to the education of princes, in his work Entwurf der Erziehung und Unterweisung eines Fürsten (Berlin, 1813). These educational works of Arndt exercised far less influence upon the rising generation of Germany than his fairy tales, and especially his patriotic songs, many of which are to be found in most German reading-books and thus have contributed very much toward shaping the German mind of the nineteenth century. In his autobiography, Erinnerungen aus dem äusseren Leben (Leipsic, 2. ed., 1840), Arndt treats fully of his own education. Biographies of Arndt have been written by EUGEN LABES (1860), H. REHBEIN and R. KEIL (1861), and D. SCHENKEL (1866).—See also G. FREYTAG, in Deutsche Allgemeine Biographie, art. Arndt.

ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., the illustrious English teacher and historian, was born at West Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, in 1795. He was educated at Winchester College and Oxford University, from the latter of which he obtained a first-class degree in 1814. He attained his greatest fame as head-master of Rugby School, to which position he was elected in 1828, and in which he continued till his death. In the course of instruction of this school, he introduced many improvements; but it was the system of moral teaching and training which he established, that gave to him and to the school their greatest distinction. He preserved among the boys the highest tone of moral and religious sentiment; and, with consummate tact, habituated them to the practice of the principles which he taught, making himself both feared and loved. His chief reliance was upon guiding the public opinion of the school, as the most powerful element of control in every community. For the practice of "fagging" previously in vogue in the school, he instituted a system of responsible supervision by the pupils of the highest class over the younger boys, thus giving full opportunity for the active exercise of those virtues which they had been taught. Rugby, however, by no means occupied all his time and attention. For some time he held a place in the senate of the London University, and a short time before his death, accepted the appointment of Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, where he delivered some introductory lectures. To this position he intended to devote his whole energies, retiring from Rugby; but his plans were frustrated by his sudden death, in 1842. His greatest literary

50

ous.

ARNOLD

work is the History of Rome, which he published in three volumes (1838-1840-1842), brought down to the end of the Second Punic War. This work he did not live to complete. His miscellaneous writings are varied and numerDr. Arnold's purity and elevation of character, his conscientious zeal and wise efforts as a practical educator, his learning and literary skill, and the excellent example which he presented in all the relations of life, entitle him to be considered "one of the brightest ornaments of his age." See STANLEY, Arnold's Life and Correspondence (London, 1845); also Tom Brown's School-Days at Rugby (London and Boston, 1857).

1853.

ARNOLD, Thomas Kerchever, an English clergyman, was born in 1800 and died in He is chiefly noted for his school manuals for elementary instruction in Greek, Latin, French, German, and some other languages. These books have been extensively used in this country as well as in England. They are based upon a thorough system of practical drill in all the peculiarities of the language to be taught. Mr. Arnold also prepared a series of school classics, and published articles on various religious and ecclesiastical questions. His manuals for classical study are based on a system similar to that of Ollendorff.

ART-EDUCATION. Every complete system of education must provide for the culture of all the varied faculties of the human mind, physical and intellectual, moral and spiritual, esthetic and emotional; and must, besides, supply the means necessary for the development of those practical capacities upon which the social and national progress of every civilized people depends. Among the agencies required for this purpose, art-education claims profound attention. The element of beauty, which exists in the human mind, when made the subject of progressive cultivation, and applied to the various industries of social life, becomes a thing of pecuniary as well as esthetic value. The training of the hand and eye, which is obtained by drawing, is proved by experience to be of very great advantage to the operative in every branch of industry; indeed, in many occupations, drawing is indispensable to success. But the value is still greater if to this simple training, the culture of the perception and conception of forms and their combinations is added, leading to skill in designing a branch of art of the highest value in very many departments of manufacturing industry. "Art-education", says an eminent authority," embraces all those appliances and methods of training by which the sense of form and proportion is developed. It is successful when the student unerringly discriminates between what is ugly and what is beautiful, and expresses his ideas of form in drawing as readily as ideas of other sorts on the written page."

Art culture among the ancients must have been carried to the highest degree of perfection, as is obvious on an inspection of Egyptian, Assyrian, and more especially Grecian antiquities.

ART-EDUCATION

The genius of Phidias and Praxiteles must have owed its development to the results of many centuries of previous culture. The Parthenon was the noblest achievement of the loftiest genius making use of the agencies and results of the most complete culture and education in art. We have, however, no history of that education in detail. Instruction in the art of design (ypaçıký) was quite general at Athens and in some of the other Grecian states; and Aristotle, in his scheme of education, attributes to it great importance as a means of cultivating the sense of the beautiful. The establishment of art-schools and schools of design for the masses is, however, of modern origin, and is due to a consideration, based upon experience, of the great value of general artistic skill in increasing the sources of national wealth. This will be fully shown as we proceed; but as immediately relevant to it we quote the following statement of the French imperial commission, in its summary of the inquiry on professional education: "Among all the branches of instruction which, in different degrees, from the highest to the lowest grade, can contribute to the technical education of either sex, drawing, in all its forms and applications, has been almost unanimously regarded as the one which it is most important to make common." Heretofore, in the struggle and conflict of nations for supremacy and power, it was believed they could depend exclusively upon armed men and heavy guns; but to-day the great nations of Europe rely on industrial education, and the general culture of the people. The World's Fair held at London, in 1851, revealed plainly to England that she was far behind her great rival France in the production of articles requiring skilled labor and taste, indeed, below all the other civilized nations except the United States. Convinced of her inferiority, she went vigorously to work to give general instruction in the fine and industrial arts, by establishing schools for special training, free of cost, to those whom the science and art department of the government had selected for artmasters. Art-schools were founded for instruction in drawing, modeling, and design, in many of the large cities and towns throughout the kingdom. The British official report for 1872 shows that there were, at that time, in England 122 industrial art-schools; besides which there were 194,549 children receiving instruction in drawing in the "schools for the poor." Up to that time, there had been established one well-appointed art-school of 190 students for every 210,000 of the population; so rapidly was instruction in art as applied to industry provided for and diffused among the industrial classes of Great Britain. But the results had, previous to this time, been already definitely shown. At the Paris Exposition of 1867, England stood in the first rank of artistic nations, and even surpassed some of those who previously had carried off the highest honors. This great advance made by the English from 1851 to 1867 alarmed the French. They saw they could no longer rely on that prestige which had always placed them at the head; and they,