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656

NOVA SCOTIA

NUMBER

common schools, the distribution for each term | fax; St. Mary's College (Roman Catholic), Halibeing made for the corresponding term of the fax; Acadia college (Baptist), Wolfville; St. preceding year. Halifax constitutes one school Francis College (Roman Catholic), Antigonish: section, with a board of thirteen commissioners, and King's College and University (Church of who form a corporation, and of whom seven are England), Windsor. Of these, King's College and appointed by the government, and six by the city Dalhousie College are the largest. The former council. The governor may appoint principals originated in a recommendation made by a comof the normal and model schools, who with the mittee of the House of Assembly, in 1787. It approval of the council, may appoint their assist- was founded by an act of parliament, in 1788, ants. The general control of the normal school and received a royal charter from George III., is in the hands of the superintendent. An an- in 1802. Connected with it, is a school of civil nual grant of $600 is made to each county acad- engineering, a library of 6,000 volumes, and a emy. The normal school has but one term, museum containing fine collections in the various commencing on the first Wednesday in Novem- departments of natural history. A collegiate ber, and closing on the Friday preceding the school, which is also connected with it, prepares annual provincial examinations, in July. Before boys for the college. It had, in 1875, 5 professors entering, every student must declare his or her and an endowment fund of $106,891. Dalhousie intention to teach three years in the schools of College had, in 1875, 6 professors and an endowthe province; otherwise, a fee of $20 is charged. ment fund of $99,233. There is a medical faculThe chief town of each county is entitled to a ty in connection with the college, in which, in grant for an academy, on complying with certain 1875, there were 11 professors.-See MARLING, conditions. The first or highest department is Canada Educational Yearbook for 1870; open, free of charge, to all children of the county LOVELL'S Gazetteer of British North America. who are able to pass the required examination. NOVELS. See FICTION. Whenever the chief town fails to obtain the grant, or to maintain an efficient academy, the council reserves the right to treat with any other section in the county for the establishment and proper maintenance of such academy.―The annual examination of teachers takes place on the first Tuesday after July 15. All licenses are valid in any part of the province until revoked for cause; but nobody under 15 years of age is allowed to teach unless with the express approval of the inspector. A system of evening schools is authorized for persons over 13 years of age. The number of teachers, in 1874, was 686. The number of pupils enrolled during the year was 93,512; and the number present, of each 100 registered, was, in the winter, 52.9; and in the summer, 57.1. The normal school had 118 pupils under instruction and training, of whom 80 received licenses to teach. The total number of teachers examined was 1,198, of whom 594 were licensed. The expenditure for the public schools was $552,221, of which the government grant was $157,481; and for the normal and model schools, $4,733, all of which expense was borne by the government. In 1875, there were 10 county academies, with 43 teachers and 2,614 pupils. There are also a number of special academies, of which the Horton Collegiate School, with 145 pupils, and the Picton Academy, with 120 pupils, in 1875, are the largest. The latter institution was founded, in 1816, on the plan of a Scotch college, but without the power of conferring degrees. In addition to these academies, there is a high school at New Glasgow, founded in 1860. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb is almost entirely free; in 1875, it had 5 teachers and 42 students. The University of Dalhousie now virtually fills the place for many years occupied by the academy; and the latter is now organized as the highest or academic grade of the schools of the town. There were, in 1875, five colleges: Dalhousie College and University, Hali

NUMBER is here considered as a branch of elementary or object instruction. Great importance should be placed on the means by which children acquire their first ideas of number. Since a child's knowledge of this subject begins with counting, the first exercises for teaching it should be the counting of objects. The child may first be taught to count as far as ten by using the numeral frame (q. v.), or buttons, pencils, the fingers, sticks, marks, or other objects. Next he should be taught to count groups of balls, buttons, sticks, or other objects, used to represent the several numbers, one, two, three, four, five, etc. By using the groups of objects thus counted as illustrations of the several numbers, figures may readily be taught. Let the pupil count one ball on the numeral frame, one pencil, one finger, one mark, and then show him the figure I to represent the number of each object. Next let him count, in groups, two balls on the numeral frame, two pencils, two fingers, two marks, etc.; then show the figure 2 as a symbol of the number of objects in each group. Afterward, require the pupil to count balls, pencils, and other objects in groups of three, and then show the figure 3 as the representative of the number counted in each group. In a similar manner, the several figures from 2 to 9 may be associated, and their value learned by means of counting. In order to teach children the value of the several figures by personal experience, let them count in groups two balls, or buttons, etc., and observe that each group contains two ones,

that two is equal to one and one more, or two ones. After the pupils have counted several kinds of objects in groups of three, lead them to notice that one and one and one, or three ones, make three, also that two and one make three. Proceeding in the same manner to count in groups four objects, let the pupils observe that four ones, or two and one and one, or three and one, or two and two, or two times two, make four. By means

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of similar exercises, the value of each number | tion of it by the numeral frame; not, at least, from two to nine may be thoroughly learned by until the pupils have acquired a definite underchildren. As additional exercises, or a review standing of the relation between the value of of previous lessons, let the pupils count as many single figures, and their values as dependent upon balls on the numeral frame, or hold up as many their relative positions in regard to other figures. fingers, as the given figure represents. By this The most important uses of the numeral frame means, all the figures from 1 to 9 may be learned are, to teach a class of pupils to count, and to as symbols of numbers. In subsequent lessons, illustrate the value of numbers and figures; also for teaching figures as representatives of num- to teach the first steps in adding, subtracting, bers greater than nine, let the figures be arranged multiplying, and dividing. For the first steps in in groups as follows: adding, let the pupils add balls on the numeral First group, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 frame, by ones as far as ten. When they can do Second group, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 this readily, let them add on the blackboard a Third group, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 column composed of 1s; then let them add a like column of figures on their slates. Subsequently, and so on to 99. Requiring the pupils to count teach them to add balls on the numeral frame by as many balls, or other objects, to represent in twos; then to add a column of figure 2s on the order the numbers symbolized by each of these blackboard; and then on their slates. When the groups, will lead them to understand the value adding of 1s and 2s has thus been learned, proof the numbers that are expressed with two ceed in the same manner with threes, fours, etc. figures. This part of the instruction may be After the pupils have learned to add threes as greatly facilitated by giving the pupil several above, they may be taught by these three steps small sticks, like matches, and requiring him to to add 1s and 2s in the same column; then to count and tie in bundles as many sticks as each add 1s, 2s, and 3s in the same column. In this of the figures from 1 to 9 represents. Then to manner the pupils may be taught to add readily furnish the pupil with favorable opportunities and rapidly single columns composed of such of learning, by personal observation and experi- figures as 6, 7, 8, 9. To give children an idea of ence, that each number represented by two fig- subtraction, teach them to count backward on ures in the second group is composed of one the numeral frame from ten; thus, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, bundle of ten ones, and one or more single ones 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0. Subsequently, call on a pupil to added, let him count and tie in a bundle ten hold the numeral frame, to take one ball from sticks to represent the number 10; and then tie two balls, and tell how many remain; then one ten sticks in a bundle and add to it one single ball from three balls, etc. Proceed in a similar stick to represent the number 11, and so on to 19. manner with other numbers, taking care to arTwo bundles of ten sticks each may be made for range the exercises so as to give the pupils as the number 20, and two similar bundles and a much actual practice as possible in taking balls single stick for 21; and so on to 29. In this or other objects from a larger number of obmanner, children may be taught to comprehend jects. To illustrate the first ideas of multiplicathe value of all the simple numbers to 100. The tion to a class of young pupils, arrange the balls knowledge obtained by means of the exercises on the numeral frame in groups of twos, threes, described above will prepare the pupils to learn etc. Place on one wire two groups of two each, readily and intelligently both the value and the and lead the pupils to perceive that they may form of writing numbers through hundreds, and say that, "two and two make four;" or that thereby to understand the principles of numera-"two twos make four"; also that "two times tion and notation. See CURRIE, Principles and two make four. Place on another wire Practice of Early and Infant School Education three groups of two each, and let the pupils (Edin. and Lond.); N. A. ČALKINS, New Primary observe that "two and two and two make Object Lessons (New York, 1871). six;" or that "three twos make six," also that NUMERAL FRAME. This simple appa-"three times two are six." Proceed in a similar ratus has been in use for many centuries. In inanner with numbers, and so arrange the exersome form or other, it is now used for teaching cises as to furnish the pupils as much individual number, in all parts of the world. It is some- practice as possible. After each step has been illustimes employed to represent units, tens, hun- trated by the numeral frame, place figures on dreds, thousands, etc., in numeration. This use of the blackboard to represent what has been thus the numeral frame renders it necessary to give ar- taught. To illustrate the first ideas of division, tificial values to the balls on different wires; and arrange balls in groups of four, six, eight, ten, etc., notwithstanding that this is analogous, in order, on the different wires. Lead the pupils to see that to the arrangement of the numerical system of each of these groups can be divided into groups figures, there is danger that young children, by of twos. Then require them to divide the groups the use of it for this purpose, may become con- thus and tell how many groups of twos can be fused between the actual numerical value of a made from four balls, six balls, eight balls, etc. ball and its several artificial values. Inasmuch Let the pupils also find how many threes there as numeration can be illustrated much more in- are in six, nine, twelve; and how many fours in telligently by the method described under Num- eight, twelve, etc. That which is learned in each ber (q. v.), if aided by the use of the black-step may be represented by figures on the blackboard, it is not advisable to attempt an explana- board.-(See NUMBER.)

658

OBERLIN

OBJECT TEACHING

OBERLIN, Johann Friedrich, a noted philanthropist, and the originator of infant schools, was born in Strasbourg, Aug. 31., 1740; died at Waldbach, in Alsace, June 1., 1826. He was educated in his native city, was occupied as private tutor for several years, and, in 1766, became Protestant pastor of a district in Waldbach, which had been reduced to a condition of poverty by the devastations of the Thirty Years' War. His office as pastor of Waldbach, in the Ban de la Roche, in which district the people had been brought to a condition of helplessness by ignorance and want, enabled him to exercise the power almost of a dictator; but this power he used solely for their good. His first measures were purely philanthropic. He introduced better methods of cultivating the soil, caused good roads, bridges, and dwellings to be constructed, and established schools, hospitals, and various new branches of manufacture. With the increase of material prosperity, the moral condition of the people was steadily advanced, till, at the close of his sixty years' labors, the population, originally 500, had increased to more than 5,000; and the success which attended his efforts, led, in after years, to an unquestioned recognition of his claim to a place among the world's benefactHis distinctive educational work was the establishment of schools, since known as infant schools, but then termed asylums, resembling the crèche (q. v.). In these, he gathered together the children of his parishioners for amusement and instruction, while their parents were at work. The idea of instruction seems originally to have been secondary in Oberlin's mind, his first thought being to occupy the children so as to leave their parents free to carry out his plans for the amelioration of their condition. The idea of instructing them, however, must have presented itself almost immediately; and his method, by combining these two ideas, was productive of the happiest results. In all his efforts, he was affectionately seconded by his housekeeper, Louisa Schepler. Memoirs of the life of Oberlin have been published as follows: T. SIMS, Brief Memorials of Oberlin (London, 1830); Memoirs of Oberlin, with a short notice of Louisa Schepler (London, 1838 and 1852); and a biography by H. WARE, JR. (Boston, 1845).

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OBERLIN COLLEGE, at Oberlin, Ohio, was opened in 1833 as the Oberlin Collegiate Institute, and received its present title in 1850. It is under Congregational control. Both sexes have been admitted from the first; and, in 1835, it was resolved to admit colored students. It has valuable apparatus and cabinets, and libraries containing about 14,000 volumes. The value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $170,000; the amount of its productive funds, $115,000. The tuition fees are small. The college embraces four departments: (1) theology; (2) philosophy and the arts, with a classical and scientific course, a literary

course, and select courses; (3) preparatory instruction, including a classical and an English school; and (4) a conservatory of music. In 1875-6, there were 33 instructors. The number of students was as follows: theological, 51; classical and scientific, 147; literary, 145; select, 66; classical schools, 250; English school, 379; conservatory of music, 288; total, deducting repetitions, 1,216 (648 male and 568 female). The following are the names of the presidents: the Rev. Asa Mahan, 1835-50; the Rev. Charles G. Finney, 1851-66; and the Rev. James H. Fairchild, the present incumbent, appointed in 1866.

OBJECT TEACHING, a method of instruction in which objects are employed by means of which to call into systematic exercise the observing faculties of young pupils, with the threefold object, (1) to cultivate the senses, (2) to train the perceptive faculty, so that the mind may be stored with clear and vivid ideas, and (3), simultaneously with these, to cultivate the power of expression by associating with the ideas thus formed appropriate language. The merit of introducing object teaching as a special method of elementary instruction, is usually attributed to Pestalozzi; but Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Basedow, Rochow, and others based their systems of education, more or less, upon the same principle; that is, they recognized the necessity of communicating ideas, or of affording to the mind the means to grasp ideas from objects, by actual perception, before attempting to teach the vertal expression of those ideas, and that, without such ideas, mere "book-learning" is useless. Pestalozzi appears, however, to have had only a slight knowledge of the works of those educationists. Inspired by the reading of Rousseau's Émile to study the phases of mental growth, he arrived at the conclusion that the teaching of his day was fundamentally wrong, from its violation of, or inattention to, the laws of mental development. These laws he believed to be, (1) that the knowledge of things should precede that of words; (2) that, for the acquisition of this knowledge, the only effective agents, in the first stages of mental growth, are the senses, chief of which is the eye; (3) that the first objects to be studied by the child are those immediately surrounding it, and these, only in their simplest forms and relations; and (4) that from these objects as a center, the sphere of knowledge should be widened by a gradual extension of the powers of observation to more distant objects. The first instruction, therefore, according to this plan, should consist in concentrating the attention upon concrete things, in such a way as to result in a thorough training of the observing faculties, so that the conceptions with which the mind is stored may be as well defined, and as true to nature, as possible. So impressed was Pestalozzi with the correctness, and the supreme importance, of this method, that he declares in, Wie Gertrud

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sciences, universal history, mathematics, and arts; and, finally, a course of practical teaching in trial lessons, under the supervision of model teachers and the student's own associates. Among the writers above mentioned, one of the principal points of controversy was in regard to the necessity of educating the senses. Many denied alto

ihre Kinder lehrt (1806), that the sum of his achievements in education is the establishment of the truth that "the culture of the outer and inner senses is the absolute foundation of all knowledge-the first and highest principle of instruction." The failure of the first attempts of Pestalozzi and his followers, however, in the practical application of his theories, was dis-gether this necessity, and insisted that object couraging; and the faith of the progressive educators who had accepted them as a new gospel, was seriously shaken. The reason of their failure, however, was that their practice was in conflict with the very principles which Pestalozzi had enunciated as fundamental. The human body, with which they began their instructions, is not only highly composite in its structure, and difficult of description in the language of the child, but, by its very nearness, is rendered unfit for an object of study by children, their senses being most powerfully, and, indeed, almost exclusively, turned to the observation of objects external to themselves. By attempting, therefore, to name in detail and to describe the limbs, their form, color, size, actions, and uses, the new theory was exposed to the ridicule of its enemies, and placed in serious peril. In all the Protestant countries of Europe, however, and especially in Germany, the leaven of truth contained in the principles of Pestalozzi, wrought a gradual but sure reform in the old method of instruction. Attention having been turned to a serious consideration of the new system, a number of pedagogical writers contributed, by their discussion of its principles, to give definite form to the truth of the theory, and gradually to improve its practice. Among these writers, the names of Harnisch, Denzel, Dinter, Diesterweg, Grassmann, Graser, Wurst, Curtmann, Völter, and Dittes, deserve mention, though scarcely any two of them agree as to the order in which the objects should be introduced, the relative importance of the purposes for which they are used, or the extent to which the exercises should be carried. Object teaching became universal in the primary schools; and the dignity and usefulness of the teacher were increased by the very impossibility of prescribing any one method in which the principles should be applied, thus giving special prominence to the fact that the determining cause in favor of one method over another was the individual ability of the teacher. Instead of one invariable method, which might be unintelligently acquired and mechanically applied, a variety of methods now presented themselves, each dependent for its success upon circumstances. The individuality of the pupil suddenly acquired a new importance; and the teacher's individuality, also, became, more than ever before, an essential factor in the successful conduct of the school. For the difficult work thus foreshadowed, a long and careful preparation was necessary on the part of the student. The first step in this preparation was the observation of the educational work of some good teacher; then, a thorough study, in the normal school, of the subjects of pedagogy, psychology, the history of education, the natural

teaching should be reserved exclusively for exercises in using and understanding language. The senses, so they argued, take care of themselves, whenever an interest in surrounding objects is awakened by the necessities of daily life; and the common school, they said, can present but few objects of interest on which the senses can be profitably exercised. If, for instance, pictures of objects are presented as is most frequently the case, and if these pictures are large and faithful copies of the originals-which is rarely the case- -the exercise is still confined to only one sense; and experience proves that this is insufficient to awaken a lively interest. The impression made on the sight, therefore, is short-lived and feeble. If, on the other hand, the objects themselves are produced, as these are generally house utensils, or articles of school furniture, only a languid interest is aroused in the pupils' minds, because there is rarely any new feature to be observed in objects so familiar. The incentive to any observation or comparison of qualities, therefore, is utterly wanting; and any sharpening of the senses is improbable. If, on the contrary, the exercises upon objects be carried on for the purpose of enriching the child's vocabulary, and of storing his mind with just and accurate conceptions, by causing him to connect with every word its proper idea, all will have been done to benefit the pupil that can reasonably be expected. The opponents of this view, however, insisted that the use of object teaching for the exclusive purpose of the acquisition of language, would overthrow that fundamental principle of the system which discountenances mere word learning. The correct understanding and use of language, also, they thought, could be learned as well from books and conversation; while, if the child is made to understand, that to talk fluently and correctly of objects is all that is required, and that a real knowledge of those objects is of no consequence, clever talk will always be more highly valued by him than exact knowledge. According to their view, the pupil brings with him to the primary school only the raw material out of which objective knowledge and the proper use of the senses may be developed his mental pictures are wanting in definiteness and in order. These must be taken to pieces, i. e., analyzed, and recomposed, i. e., synthetized, at the sight, hearing, or touch, of real objects. If the interest of the children in the exercise of the senses is lacking, it is the teacher's duty to excite it; and this should be easy with young children, if the teacher's interest in the subject is lively enough to communicate itself to them.-While the rapid progress of science and art in our day infinitely augments the mass of knowledge which it is desirable and

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important for every body to learn, the increasing artificiality of our daily life tends to alienate us from a spontaneous exercise of our senses; and this deficiency must be supplied by education, to enable us to compass the amount of knowledge which it is desirable to acquire. The exercise of the senses is not only practically useful, but it is, in most cases, full of interest. To illustrate this, let pupils be asked to estimate by sight the length of a pen-holder, the dimensions of a window pane, distances on the floor or on the ground, the weight of objects that can be held in the hand; or to distinguish shades of color, and the differences in pitch or quality of musical sounds. Such exercises are not only amusing, but useful; while, on the other hand, there is abundant evidence that the circumstances of daily life do not, of themselves, educate the senses. Thus, let a dozen countrymen be asked the length of a certain way over which they often travel, and the probability is that a dozen different answers will be given, many of them wide of the mark. Instances might be multiplied indefinitely to show that the senses are not self-educative. Some educators, while not objecting to any of the five purposes to which object lessons may be applied; namely, (1) the preparation of the pupil for serious learning; (2) the sharpening of the senses, and the exercise of all the mental functions; (3) exercise in language; (4) the acquisition of knowledge; and (5) moral training; still have insisted that a distinction should be made between object teaching and objective teaching; the former comprising exercises in which the objects are taught for themselves, i. e., for instruction in all the properties which are peculiar to them; the latter, for the acquisition of that generalized or fundamental knowledge which is common to many widely different objects. The former, they contended, should occupy only a part of the time during the first year or two, after which it should cease; but every branch of learning should, in turn, be treated objectively. The method of procedure should be, first, the presentation of the object. This should be analyzed by the pupils, and immediately reconstructed, the teacher supplying nothing but technical terms which are supposed to be unknown to the pupils, but guiding them by conversation to observe, compare, and reason correctly and in proper language, to rise from the single features of the object to its entirety, from similar features to generalizations, from the concrete to the abstract, from facts to laws. The opponents of this view said that the principle was good, but did not go far enough. In the first place, there is a vast body of knowledge that cannot be treated objectively. All facts, for instance, in regard to the days of the week, and the months, their names, number, etc.; many facts in regard to time, such as the number of seconds in a minute, the number of minutes in an hour, etc., the names of the seasons, the method of telling time by the clock, these and many other necessary facts cannot be objectively presented, but must be learned arbitrarily; while, at a later period in

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education, there appear astronomical, geographical, and historical facts, which must simply be taken on trust, and committed to memory. In view of these things, text-books are indispensable; and all attempts to teach without them are useless, and result in a waste of precious time. While recognizing, therefore, the value of object teaching in many branches, and its pre-eminent value in a few, they assert that it has its natural limitations beyond which memorizing and an adherence to the text-book are the only proper means to be relied upon by the teacher. At the present time, this latter view-that a combination of the two methods should be employed, is in the ascendant. In Europe, especially in Germany, this reactionary movement is thought to be fostered from political and religious motives. In the United States, the demand for teachers has so far exceeded the supply from the normal schools, without a corresponding rise in salaries, that the standard of qualifications for teachers has not been maintained at the height which many educational reformers had hoped it would be. In short, the principles and system of Pestalozzi cannot be said, at the present time, to be fully carried out. Object teaching should be begun as early as possible, and in the manner of the kindergarten. and should be followed by objective and conceptive teaching, which should be carried through every branch of learning. The mental growth of pupils, however, should not be retarded by a superfluous use of this method. A safe criterion. by which the teacher may know, at any moment, whether he has made a proper use of the object method, may be found in the self-activity of his pupils, their ability to grasp, in their answers to his questions, the general fact, proposition, or law. The new method is justly called the derel oping method (q. v.), the pupils' minds being inade to develop themselves, the teacher only suggesting what they are to discover. Every pupil is, as it were, to rediscover every science in the genetic method (q. v.), a difficult task for the teacher, and apparently a circuitous way for the pupil. But because of its thoroughness, it is the most rapid way of learning; and its results are indelibly fixed in the mind. This method, also, if early begun, and consistently carried out, is successful with every child, and saves precious time, which, later in life, may be devoted to those higher branches that lie beyond the commonschool course, but which are every year becoming, in many cases, highly desirable, and, in some, indispensable. The literature of object teaching is much too extensive to permit the enumeration here of more than a few of the principal works. Pestalozzi's complete works are now (1876) undergoing, in Germany, a second revision. Diesterweg's monthly, Rheinische Blätter, contains, in its long series, and in its continuation by Wichard Lange, more information on this subject than any other work. The latest German work of a progressive nature is Fr. Dittes's Die Methodik der Volksschule auf geschichtlicher Grundlage (Leipsic, 1874). In English literature, compare works enumerated under Kindergarten. See

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