BENEKE Among the most famous schools of the Benedictines, were Monte Casino, Bobbio, Rome, and Milan, in Italy; Tours, Corbie, Fleury, which at one time had 5,000 students, Clermont, Ferrières, Fontenay, Reims, Aniane, Marmoutier, Lobbes, in France and Belgium; St. Gall, Reichenau, Fulda, Fritzlar, Hersfeld, Mayence, Treves, Prüm, Lorsch, Weissenburg, Ratisbon, Salzburg, Korvei, in Germany and Switzerland. In England, St. Peter's Convent at Canterbury had a wide-spread reputation, through Theodore of Tarsus and his companion Hadrian. The double convent of Wearmouth and Yarrow, which was founded in 673 by Benedict Biscop, gave to western teachers the learned and illustrious Bede. (See BEDE.) York, which owed its celebrity to Egbert and Adelbert, counted among its pupils the celebrated Alcuin. (See ALCUIN.) Though the prominent influence which the Benedictines, at the beginning of the middle age, exercised upon the education of Catholic Europe, was never recovered, they still continue to conduct a number of educational institutions. present (1876), they have a number of colleges and gymnasia in the United States, in Austria, Switzerland, and several other countries. At BENEKE, Friedrich Eduard, an ingenious German writer on the art of education, was born at Berlin, Febr. 17., 1798. He studied theology and philosophy at the universities of Halle and Berlin, and finally decided to devote himself wholly to philosophy in order to reform it. He became a lecturer (privatdocent) on philosophy at the university of Berlin in 1820, and, placing himself wholly upon the stand-point of empiricism and denying the possibility of a priori cognitions, at once boldly attacked the system of Hegel who at that time was all-powerful. The Prussian government, in 1822, deprived him of the right of lecturing at the university, because as the minister of public worship, Altenstein, personally explained to him, a philosophy which did not derive everything from the absolute, could not be recognized as a philosophy at all. Beneke removed, in 1824, to the university of Göttingen, whence he returned, in 1827, to Berlin, where he was appointed after the death of Hegel, in 1832, extraordinary professor of philosophy. He suddenly disappeared, March 1., 1854, and a year later his corpse was found in the canal at Charlottenburg. It has never been ascertained whether he committed suicide, or whether his death was caused by an accident. Most of the numerous works of Beneke are of a philosophical character; as an educational writer, he became first known, in 1835, by a work, entitled Theory of Education and Instruction (Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre), which made a profound impression among teachers and friends of education. The system of education proposed by him is based exclusively on psychology, and he claims for it the character of a wholly empirical science. He found many enthusiastic admirers, one of whom, Dressler (in Hergang's Realencyclopädie, 1, p. 264), says of him: All former achievements in the province of pedagogy BENGEL 81 were surpassed by Beneke. Through him the education of man has gained a character which was formerly unknown certainty of success. Previous successes were accidental, but the psychology of Beneke has given us a power over nature which does not fall behind the power exercised by physicists and chemists. The number of adherents of this system is small, though the genius of Beneke is universally acknowledged. Among the other educational works of Beneke, one published in 1836, and entitled Our Universities and what they need, attracted great attention. BENEVOLENCE, good-will, general and habitual kindness of disposition in our feelings, not only toward each other, but toward the lower animals, is a trait of character which should receive a careful cultivation in the education of the young. Children, in general, are not naturally benevolent. Their undeveloped sympathies, their active propensities and love of sport, and their proneness to what is called by phrenologists "destructiveness", incline them to acts of selfishness and cruelty. In order to check this tendency. their sensibilities should, as much as possible, be aroused; they should not be subjected to harsh or inconsiderate treatment, and they should not only read and hear stories that awaken their sympathies, but should be made to observe objects of compassion that require their active aid; and they should be incited and encouraged in every possible way to self-sacrifice in relieving the sufferings of others. In their conduct toward each other, they should be habituated to lay aside their resentments, to forgive injuries, to put the kindest and most considerate construction upon the acts of their companions, and to dismiss from their minds all suspicions and jealousies, as well as all distrust that is not based upon indisputable facts. The quarrels of children may for this purpose become the means of wholesome discipline in instruction; since the disputants themselves may be made to feel the desirability of mutual forbearance, and their associates, by being brought in to aid in reconciling them, may be impressed with the beautiful character of the peace-maker. In the treatment of the lower animals by children, there is much occasion for this kind of training; and the skillful teacher will not fail to make use of the numerous incidents of school life to impress this virtue upon the child's character. (See MORAL. EDUCATION.) BENGEL, Johann Albrecht, a celebrated German theologian and educator in Würtemberg, was born in 1687, and died in 1752. He is chiefly famous as a theological writer, being well known as one of the most prominent representatives of German pietism. He was, from 1713 to 1741, a very successful teacher at a theological seminary at Denkendorf, and while there introduced many educational reforms. The course of studies which he drew up for his school, in concert with his colleagues, attracted great attention. From an educational point of view, his writings are valuable as illustrating the peculiar position which pietism occupies in the history of German pedagogy. His life was written by his son-inlaw, Ch. Burk.-See also PALMER, Evangelische Pädagogik. BENTLEY, Richard, considered the best classical scholar England has ever produced, was born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, in 1662, and died at Cambridge in 1742. He was educated at Cambridge University, but subsequently, while tutor of the son of Dr. Stillingfleet, he pursued his classical studies at Oxford. His most celebrated work was his Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris, in which, in controversy with the most eminent scholars and literary men of his time, he proved that the Epistles were spurious. "This was," says Holland, "the first great literary war in England;" and Bentley showed such profound scholarship, acute criticism, and masterly logic, that he not only vanquished his opponents, but achieved for himself a reputation throughout Europe. In 1700, he was appointed Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, in which he continued till his death; but his arrogance and rapacity involved him in the most bitter and protracted quarrels and lawsuits, and at one time came near ignominiously depriving him of his position. He published critical editions of many classical authors, of great merit and value, among which his Horace was the most elaborate and the most popular. His edition of Milton's Paradise Lost (1732) was, however, quite unworthy of his fame. His edition of Homer he did not live to complete. Bentley did a most valuable service not only to classical scholarship, but to historical criticism, the latter of which he established on a new basis. While as an official he was arbitrary, exacting, and severe, in private life he was courteous and amiable. - See T. H. MONK, Life of Bentley (1830); HARTLEy Coleridge, Lives of Northern Worthies (edited by his brother, London, 1852); DE QUINCEY, Essays on Philosophical Writers, vol. II. (Boston, 1854.) BEREA COLLEGE, at Berea, Ky., was founded in 1858. It supplies the means of education to students, both white and colored, male and female. In 1875, it had 14 instructors and 271 students; of the latter, 157 were males and 114 females; 126 white, and 145 colored. Of the colored students, 67 were females. It includes a preparatory and a collegiate department. All the female students are included in a ladies' department, under the special supervision of a lady principal. No separate course of study is arranged for females, but both sexes recite together whenever their studies are the same. There is also a normal department with a special course for teachers; also a commercial course. The college is well supplied with apparatus and has a library of nearly 2,000 volumes. The college buildings are spacious and elegant, particularly the Ladies' Hall, erected in 1873. Rev. E. H. Fairchild (1875) is the president of the institution. The annual tuition fee is $10. BERNHARDI, August Ferdinand, one of the most eminent schoolmen of Prussia in the beginning of this century, was born in 1769, in Berlin, and died in 1820. He became a BIBLE teacher in the Friedrich Werder Gymnasium, in Berlin, in 1791, and director of the same institution in 1808. In the same year, he gave Pestalozzi's method of teaching arithmetic a trial, enlarged the exercises, and finally introduced it into his school. His success as director of the gymnasium was remarkable, the number of pupils increasing from 97 in 1808, to 460 in 1812. Many of the most distinguished men of Prussia proceeded from his school. He found no time for the publication of large works; but some of his essays and lectures have been published under the title of A view of the Organization of the Learned Schools. The programmes edited by him in 1809, 1810, and 1811, give his views upon the Number, importance, and relation of the subjects taught in a gymnasium, also on the First principles of method, and on the First principles of discipline. In later essays, published from 1814 to 1816, he gave a fuller exposition of the proper course of studies for a gymnasium ; and the ideas which he developed in regard to this subject, have gained for him the reputation of being one of the best writers on the German gymnasia. BETHANY COLLEGE, at Bethany, W. Va., was established in 1841 by the Rev. Alexander Campbell, the founder of the sect of Baptists, called Disciples. This institution had, in 1873, a corps of 9 instructors, and 123 students in the collegiate department. Its productive funds amount to $60,000, and the value of the college property,-grounds, buildings, etc., is estimated at $250,000. The president of the college is (1876) W. K. Pendleton. BETHEL COLLEGE, at Russelville, Ky., was founded by the Bethel Baptist Association of South-western Kentucky, in 1849, as a high school; and, in 1856, it was chartered as a college. Its successive presidents have been B. T. Blewitt to 1861; Rev. Geo. Hunt, from 1863 to 1864; Prof. J. W. Rust, from 1864 to 1868; Noah K. Davis, from 1868 to 1873. The discipline of the college is now under the direction of Leslie Waggener, as chairman of the faculty. In the winter of 1861-2, the college buildings were used as a hospital by the Confederate forces lying at Bowling Green. The endowment funds amount (1875) to $85,000, besides which it has a beneficiary fund of about $8,000, and its real estate, in addition to the college buildings and grounds, is valued at $85,000. It contains schools of Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural science, English, mental science, biblical knowledge, and theology, in which, in 1874-5, there were about 350 students; of whom 97 were in the collegiate department. The school of English is very complete, affording to its students a knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language, as a basis for a critical knowledge of English grammar and literature. The tuition fee is $60 per annum. BIBLE (Gr. Biẞhía, books), the sacred scriptures of the Christians. All churches which recognize Christ as their founder, whatever may be their denomination, agree in regarding the Bible as the divinely inspired book which con- | 1229, forbade laymen to read the Bible in the tains the tenets of Christian belief and of Chris- vernacular language; and, in modern times, the tian ethics. The Bible is divided into two parts, efforts of the Bible societies have been repeatedly called the Old and the New Testament. The condemned by the popes. In Protestant counformer is regarded as holy writ, not only by tries, the reading of the Bible has been a very Christians, but also by the Jews. There is not prominent agent in the development of public an entire agreement in regard to the number of education. The Bible having become, through books constituting the Old Testament. Several Luther and other Reformers of the sixteenth books are regarded by the Catholic Church as century, the principal book for the church and the belonging to, and partaking of, the inspired home-circle, the instruction of children in this character of the Scriptures, which Protestants book continued for a long time to be the chief generally regard as a class of works highly object of popular education. Children were venerable and useful, but not of divine origin. taught to read in order that they might be able The Catholic Church calls these books deutero- to peruse the Bible; and instruction in the dogcanonical, the Protestants apocryphal, or, collect- matic tenets of the Church, as well as instrucively, the Apocrypha. The New Testament is the tion in history, geography, and other branches, same in the Catholic Church as in Protestant was secondary to the reading of the Scripchurches; but one Christian sect, the Abyssinian tures. In process of time, the relation of Bible Church, recognizes, in addition to the books ac- reading to other branches of education became cepted by both Catholics and Protestants, a greatly modified; but, wherever public schools number of others as a part of the New Testa- still have a distinctively Protestant character, the reading of the Bible is retained as a special branch of instruction. Protestant educators differ in regard to the question, whether it is preferable to place the entire Bible, or only editions specially abridged for the use of children (schoolbibles), into the hands of the pupils. Both views have found able advocates; but the use of the entire Bible has thus far been favored by the legislation of most of the Protestant states of Europe. On the other hand, educators have generally agreed in recommending to teachers not to require the entire Bible to be read consecutively by the pupils; but to leave out those portions which are either inappropriate or too difficult for children. ment. Catholics and Protestants, though accepting the same books as the sources of divine truth, differ widely in the interpretation of their contents. Most of the biblical Protestants regard the Bible as the only source of Christian faith, and maintain that, whatever differences of opinion may exist in regard to some particular doctrines, the great fundamental truths of Christianity are set forth in it so clearly, as to supersede fully the need of any other standard of faith. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, holds that the Bible was not given by God to man to be the only guide for the formation of his religious be lief, but that, for that purpose, an infallible church was instituted, whose office it is to explain to the faithful the true meaning of the Bible. From the different position which these two large denominations of Christians assume in regard to the Bible, it follows that they must teach a different way of using it. Thus, the Protestant churches consider it a matter of prime importance that every child should become acquainted with the Bible as the only infallible source of the pure word of God, and should learn, as soon as possible, to read and understand it; while the Catholic Church enjoins upon its members to keep constantly in mind, in reading the Bible, that only the infallible church possesses the key to its true meaning. The Protestant churches earnestly desire that the Bible should be placed in the hands of every Christian; and they have, therefore, founded in all Protestant countries Bible Societies, designed to carry out this object, and thus have already fully succeeded in making the Bible the most widely circulated book in the world. The Catholic Church prefers the use of annotated Bibles, or of selections from the Bible, to that of the Scriptures without note and comment. When, in the thirteenth century, the Albigenses translated the Bible into their vernacular languages, and referred their members to the text of the Bible as contradicting the teachings of the church, the synod of Toulouse, in The Catholic Church is opposed to the introduction of the Bible without note or comment into schools, and substitutes for it the use of biblical histories and selections from the Bible. Recent Catholic works on education express the wish, that to the reading of suitable selections from the Bible greater prominence should be given than has heretofore been the case. ROLFUS & PFISTER, Real-Encyclopädie des Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens nach katholischen Principien, art. Bibel. See Bible Question. In the United States, the public schools are of an undenominational character, being intended to receive children of all kinds of religious belief or unbelief. The question whether the reading of the Bible is to be retained in the public schools, has been and still is the subject of animated discussion and agitation. The decision of this question is mostly left to the local boards of education, which may prescribe, allow, or forbid the reading of the Bible. The legislation of several of the states of the Union provides, however, that no ordinance shall be passed by any local board of education forbidding the use of the Bible. The majority of the Protestant churches still favor the reading of the Bible, though some of the most prominent clergymen have, of late, taken the ground that it would be unjust to request the children of Catholics, Jews, or Non-Christians to take part in re ligious exercises to which their parents object. The Catholics and Jews, together with all the opponents of Christianity, generally demand the exclusion of the Bible from the schools. In the city of Cincinnati, a resolution by the board of education forbidding the reading of the Bible in the public schools, led, in 1869, to a legal contest which lasted four years. The superior court of Cincinnati, in 1870, decided against the board of education; but the supreme court of Ohio, in June 1873, reversed this judgment, and sustained the Cincinnati board of education. The school board of Chicago, in 1875, followed the example of Cincinnati, and forbade the reading of the Bible in the public schools. The question has also been vehemently agitated in the city of New York.-See The Bible in the Public Schools; Arguments in the case of John D. Minor et al. versus the Board of Education of the City of Cincinnati et al. (Cincinnati, 1870); BOURNE, History of the Public School Society (N. Y., 1870); BOESE, Public Education in the City of New York (New York, 1869); T. H. HUXLEY, The School Boards, in Critiques and Addresses (London, and N. Y., 1873); GRIMKE, Use of the Bible in Common Education, in Amer. Annals of Education, vol. II. (1833), and The Bible as a Class Book, in Addresses (1831.) BLACKBOARD works treating of this subject are generally entitled Introductions to the Bible; but a number of prominent theologians, rejecting this title as unsuitable, have treated of this subject under the heading, History of the Bible, or History of the Biblical Revelation. The most noted works of this class are: REUSS, Die Geschichte der heil. Schriften des N. T. (1853, 3d. edit. 1860); GUERICKE, Gesammtgeschichte des N. T. (Leip., 1854); HANEBERG, Versuch einer Geschichte der biblischen Offenbarung (Ratisbon, 1850). BIRCH, as the name of the tree from which rods or twigs were formerly obtained for the infliction of corporal punishment, is often used as denoting this species of punishment; and the tree is frequently referred to in connection with school-keeping in the olden time. Shakespeare speaks of the "threatening twigs of birch"; and Shenstone, in The Schoolmistress, thus refers to the tree and its connection with school-management: "And all in sight doth rise a birchen tree, Doubtless, the toughness and elasticity of the twigs of the birch made them, before the introduction of the rattan, very useful implements for the purpose of school chastisement. (See CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.) BIBLE HISTORY, or Biblical History. The connected history of the events narrated in the Bible is in many schools, both Protestant and Catholic, a part of the prescribed religious instruction. The method of teaching it greatly varies according to the age of the scholars. While children of the primary grade are taught BLACKBOARD, an important piece of only the most notable events of sacred history, school apparatus now in use in all classes and in language adapted to their age, more advanced grades of schools. It is generally constructed of students are introduced into a full understanding wood, and is either attached to the wall of the of the Bible. In the compilation of text-books room, or made to stand on an easel or revolve in for this study, the authors have sometimes a frame. Instead of blackboards, wall slates are endeavored to give the whole narrative as much now very frequently used, which, although much as possible in the words of the Bible, so as to more expensive, are to be preferred on account make the book, in fact, an abridgment of the of their durability. Sometimes, a portion of the Bible. Others have deemed it better to pay less wall itself is painted black, or covered with attention to retaining the words of the Bible, liquid slating, for this purpose; and at the presand to look, in the first place, to making the sub-ent time a kind of slated cloth is manufactured, ject as interesting, attractive, and intelligible to which being attached to the wall answers every children as possible. Germany, where Biblical purpose of a blackboard. history (Biblische Geschichte) is generally adopted as a part of the course of instruction in public schools of various grades, has a very extensive literature on the subject, including many manuals for teachers. Of scientific theology, Bible history forms an essential part, and is divided, like the Bible itself, into two sections, the history of the Old, and the history of the New Testament. It forms the connecting link between exegetical and historical theology, explaining, on the one hand, the contents of the Bible, and, on the other hand, treating and elucidating them the same as any other historical subject. Bible history may also be viewed as a history of the volume containing the sacred writings of the Christian church In this sense, it treats of the origin of the several books composing the Bible, and of their collection in the canon. The The blackboard for the use of the teacher in giving his instruction or explanations to the whole school or class, should, for the sake of convenience, be placed near his desk and in front of the pupils. It is a great advantage also to have sufficient blackboard surface to admit of its use by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it. This is especially desirable in higher instruction; but even in elementary district schools will be found to be quite desirable. Some of the pupils of a school can be employed in writing, drawing, or working out arithmetical problems on the blackboards, while others are engaged in oral recitation. There is scarcely any branch of instruction, or any kind of teaching, from the object lesson of the primary school to the lecture of the college professor, in which the use of the blackboard is not found to be almost indispen BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY sable. In teaching mathematics, it has an especial value. Scarcely a teacher, at the present day, in the most remote country school-house, would think of teaching arithmetic without a blackboard. But it is a most important aid also in teaching writing, drawing, geography, grammar, composition, history, and music; indeed, in every thing that admits of, or requires, an ocular demonstration addressed to a large number of pupils. Blackboard drawing can be made very instructive and interesting, particularly when crayons of different colors are used. In some schools this kind of drawing is carried to great perfection. Map-drawing, or rapid map-sketching, on the blackboard, is also very useful in teaching geography. Recitations on this subject may be conducted by this means. One of the pupils draws the outline of the state or country which is the subject of the lesson; another fills in the rivers; the next, the cities, etc., till the map is complete. As the study of maps depends so largely on the proper and attentive use of the eye, this method of blackboard instruction cannot fail to be quite effective. Blackboard illustration will also prove very effective in the oral teaching, by a series of lessons or lectures, of abstract subjects other than mathematics, such as logic, metaphysics, mental and moral philosophy, etc. By this means the divisions and subdivisions of the subject, with their exact logical relations, are presented to the mind through the eye, and a much stronger, clearer and more durable impression is thus made. For an excellent example of this kind of teaching, see MARK HOPKINS, An Outline Study of Man (New York, 1876). See also W. A. ALCOTT, S'ate and Blackboard Exercises; WICKERSHAM, School Economy (Philadelphia, 1868). so that they may be lifted out of the pauper class, and be enabled to earn a respectable livelihood. There is a great diversity in the number of blind persons as compared with the population in different countries. Thus, according to the census of 1870, the total number of blind persons in the United States was 20,320, or 1 in 1900 of the population. In England and Wales, the proportion is reported as 1 to 1,037; in France, 1 to 938; in Greece and Turkey, 1 to 800; in Iceland, 1 to 300; and in Egypt, 1 to 200. In all countries, the number of males among the blind exceeds that of the females; and, in the United States, about one half of the blind are over 48 years of age. The proportion of those born blind to those who become so after birth is quite small. The ancients appear to have had a certain degree of reverence for the blind, to some of whom they attributed the gift of prophecy; but it was not until the Middle Ages that any provision was made for their care and protection; and it was reserved for modern times to afford them the means of education. The Hospice des QuinzeVingts (Hospital for the 300), in Paris, founded by Louis IX. in 1260, is supposed to be the first public asylum established for the blind, the object of the French king being to provide a retreat for the soldiers of his army who had lost their eyes in Egypt, during the crusade which he led against the Moslems. This institution still exists, and has an annual income of $80,000. It is however, as it was originally, only an asylum, affording no means of instruction; indeed, it was not until the 16th century that any processes were devised for this purpose. But little was accomplished in this direction till 1784, when Valentin Hauy, incited by the example of the abbe de l'Epée in connection with the education of BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY, at Carlin- deaf-mutes, commenced his exertions to find an ville, Ill., was organized in 1867, by the Presby-efficient method for teaching the blind. Having terians. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, an eclectic, a scientific, and a theological course, to which both sexes are admitted on equal terms, and receive the same honorary degrees on the completion of the course pursued. There were, in 1873, 257 students, of whom 141 belonged to the preparatory and 116 to the collegiate department; and the corps of instructors numbered 13, exclusive of 4 endowed professorships. The value of its grounds, buildings, etc. is $90,000; and its productive endowment $90,000. The president of the institution is (1876) Rev. J. W. Barby, D.D. The annual tuition fee is $25. BLIND, Education of the. The blind constitute, in every country, a numerous class of afflicted persons for whom special instruction is needed. Blindness, or loss of sight, is either congenital, or is caused by accident or disease occurring after birth. The statistics of different countries show that the number of blind persons in all ages has been quite large; and, in modern times, this has led to considerable effort with the view to afford to these unfortunates the means of education, not only for their mental improvement, but to train them to independent support, succeeded with a few individuals, by the use of raised letters, he opened a small school, which in 1791 was taken under the patronage of the government, and afterward became the Royal Institution for the Blind. He subsequently founded institutions for the blind at St. Petersburg and at Berlin. About the same time, similar institutions were established in England and Scotland; and, after the example of that at Berlin, in many of the cities of Germany. There are now 16 public institutions for the blind in England, the oldest of which is the School for the Blind, in Liverpool, founded in 1791; 4 in Scotland, of which the Asylum for Industrious Blind, in Edinburgh, was founded in 1793; and 4 in Ireland, the oldest being the Richmond National Institution, in Dublin, founded in 1810. In London, 23 private institutions have been established by charitable endowments. France has 13 schools for the blind, besides the Hospice des Quinze - Vingts. There are between thirty and forty institutions for the blind in Germany, of which the oldest is that commenced at Berlin, in 1806, by Haüy. The Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland have similar institutions. In |