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the county where it is located (Montgomery). The scheme of the college fixes it at about the grade of a high school, with special scientific and practical developments. It has a three years' curriculum, bifurcating after the first year into a special agricultural and a special mechanical course, each of two years. The Virginia Military Institute was opened at Lexington, in 1839, on a plan similar to that of West Point, and at once became popular. The annuity, originally $6,000, was subsequently increased to $15,000; and the number of cadets, before the war was about 250 (50 of them being state cadets). The buildings were burned in 1864; but since the war they have been restored, and the institution has been more flourishing than ever. The academic staff consists of 11 professors and 9 assistants, the course of study, which is chiefly of a military and scientific character, being arranged for four years. Instruction in industrial chemistry, civil and mining engineering, and agriculture, is also given in special departments of the University of Virginia, and in civil and mining engineering in Washington and Lee University.

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the Gen. Assembly. Hampden Sidney 1824 Presb. The Richmond Institute was established for the purpose of preparing colored young men for the ministry, or for teaching. The qualifications for admission are a good moral character and fair intellectual ability. The number of instructors, in 1875, was 3; the number of students, 45. The Theological Seminary of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, in 1875, had 3 instructors and 11 students; the Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church, during the same year, had 5 instructors and 51 students; and the Union Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian General Assembly, 4 instructors and 74 students.-Law is taught in the Law School of the University of Virginia, and the School of Law and Equity of Washington and Lee University. In the former, the number of instructors, in 1875, was 2; the number of students, 93; in the latter, 2 instructors and 17 students. The Medical College of Virginia, at Richmond, is the only medical school in the state not connected with a college or university. It was founded in 1851, and, in 1875, had 18 professors and instructors and 37 students. The course of study covers 2 years. Instruction in medicine is also given in the medical department of the University of Virginia, which provides a course of a year, and, in 1875, numbered 50 students and 5 professors. The equipment of the latter department for medical instruction

VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY

is very complete, and, in some respects, its facilities for this purpose are unequalled.

Special Instruction.-The Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, and the Blind, was opened in 1838, at Staunton. Instruction is given in the elementary branches of an English education, and in several trades and mechanical pursuits. There were 7 instructors and 100 pupils in the deaf-mute department, in 1875; and in the department for the blind. 8 instructors and employés, and 42 pupils. The Miller Manual Labor School had not been opened up to the summer of 1876; but it has an endowment of $1,000,000 left for its foundation by the will of Samuel Miller, of Lynchburg, who died in 1869, leaving also the sum of $300,000 for founding and maintaining an orphan asylum at Lynchburg, and $100,000 to the University of Virginia for an agricultural department. The Manual Labor School, in the county of Albemarle, is for the benefit of the poor orphan white children of that county.

Educational Literature. - The Educational Journal (monthly) is published jointly by the state association of teachers and the superintendent of public instruction, 12 pages of which are official, and paid for out of the school funds. A copy of the journal is sent to each county superintendent, and also to the clerk of each district school board.

VIRGINIA, University of, in Albemarle Co., Va., a mile and a half west of Charlottesville, was chartered in 1819 and opened in 1824. It owes its organization, plan of government, and system of instruction to Thomas Jefferson. It is partly supported by an annual state appropriation of $30,000, and partly by tuition fees. In consideration of the appropriation, the university receives, free of tuition in the academic schools, students from the state over 18 years of age who have a suitable preparation. The tuition fees are ordinarily from $75 to $110 per year. The university library contains 36,000 volumes. Applicants for admission must be at least 16 years of age. In establishing the university of Virginia Mr. Jefferson, for the first time in America, threw open the doors of a University, in the true sense of the name, providing, as amply as the available means would permit, for thorough instruction in independent schools, in all the chief branches of learning. Every student may select the schools he will attend, but in the academic department he is required, as a rule, to attend at least three. The professors are paid in part by salaries, and in part by tuition fees from pupils who attend their several schools. The schools in operation are as follows: 1, Latin; 2, Greek; 3, modern languages; 4, moral philosophy; 5, history, general literature, and rhetoric; 6, mathematics; 7, natural philosophy (including mineralogy and geology); 8, general and applied chemistry; 9, applied mathematics, engineering, and architecture; 10, analytical and agricultural chemistry; 11, natural history, experimental and practical agriculture; 12, comparative anatomy, physiology, and surgery; 13, anatomy and materia

VOICE

medica; 14, medical jurisprudence, obstetrics, and the practice of medicine; 15, chemistry and pharmacy; 16, common and statute law; 17, equity, mercantile, international, constitutional and civil law, and government. The academic degrees conferred by the university are those of (1) Proficient, for satisfactory attainments in certain subjects of study; (2) Graduate in a school; (3) Bachelor of Letters; (4) Bachelor of Science; (5) Bachelor of Arts; and (6) Master of Arts. The professional degrees are Bachelor of Law, Doctor of Medicine, Civil Engineer, Mining Engineer, and Civil and Mining Engineer. No fixed time is required for the attainment of a degree; but, in some of the principal schools, the course commonly occupies three years. In 1875 -6, there were 17 instructors and 330 students. James F. Harrison, M. D., is (1877) the chairman of the faculty.

VOICE, Culture of the. The human voice may be considered as the audible expression of the mental and physical characteristics of its possessor; and, therefore, no means employed in the varied processes of education are of more importance than those that have regard to its culture. Its powers are often widely misunderstood and misapplied, sometimes abused and destroyed. In the very beginning of education, large numbers of boys, in addition to marked inherited peculiarities, such as defective ears, weak lungs, asthmatic and husky bronchial tubes, contracted chests, elongated palates, and inflamed, swollen tonsils, are permitted to indulge in the pernicious habit of loud shouting and hurrahing, and in the baleful and distressing use of the chest tones, so frequently heard in the singing of male pupils. Every boy should be made to understand that if he thus abuses his voice, he must not expect to overcome his constitutional defects, or retain a tone which, even by assiduous practice, will become agreeable to his audience, in reading, declamation, or vocal music. Girls, while in many instances they have all the inherited disadvantages above referred to, present, through their more delicate organization and guarded habits, far more promising material for the production of purely musical effects. Parents and teachers may well take warning, also, in the education of either boys or girls, against a longcontinued strain upon their vocal chords. Many a young voice has been completely ruined by this untimely forcing of the powers of the youthful candidate for declamatory or musical honors. A child five years of age, for example, is placed on a chair, to amuse a large audience, by speaking or singing in a forced utterance, and with an unnaturally loud chest tone, entirely beyond its years, or powers of endurance. Such a tax upon its vocal chords, if long continued, is exceedingly injurious. The medium or falsetto tone, that most mellow, most musical, most sweet and expressive part of the female voice, or of the unchanged voice of the boy, gradually deteriorates, and is finally lost by this injurious process. The remedy for this destruction lies in the early protection of the health, and in the

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careful use of the young voice, at home, in school, in the church, and wherever there is any danger of this overstraining of its powers. The vocal exercises should be within a limited compass,-neither too high nor too low. All forcing of the voice should be positively forbidden and avoided; and each lesson should come to a close without fatigue. An easy and systematic mode of breathing should be an early acquisition, since it lies at the foundation of all success in singing, as well as in speaking. Tone, of itself, being nothing more nor less than breath, or air in motion through contact with a sonorous body, it is important to know, to some degree at least, the character of the organs which enter into the production of vocal tone. All cultivated speakers and singers are conscious of a thorough employment of the abdominal muscles, and of those of the diaphragm, in order to secure complete control of the breath. Inhaling, however, may be carried to excess, a result well known to professional dramatic vocalists, who often protect themselves against rupture by wearing shoulder braces, trusses, and abdominal supporters. Exhaling involves that careful use of the diaphragm, which keeps the intercostal nerves and muscles in a state of tension, in order that the lungs may have their fullest play. To know when and where to inhale and to exhale, is as necessary to the speaker, in his written or extemporaneously delivered sentences, as it is to the singer, in the enunciation of his musical phrases; and, in such case, it assumes the dignity of consummate art,— an indispensable and prime necessity to the conscientious interpreter of either classic language or classic music. Without ease, sustained repose, and a method made effective through long habit, in the management of the breath, all subsequent attention to details in the art of speaking or singing is measurably lost. Demosthenes, with pebbles in his mouth, declaiming to the winds and waves on the sea-shore, and Braham, lifting up his voice amid the hills and forests of Northumberland, may profitably be remembered and imitated by all students who desire to remedy defects, and to acquire new breathing power.A graceful attitude, and thorough skill in the proper use of the breath being gained, the close sympathy always existing between the bronchial tubes and the stomach next demands attention. A rapid and complete digestion is esteemed by all intelligent persons the greatest of physical blessings; and to no one is it a more necessary condition of success than to the public speaker or singer. So important is this to the professional vocalist, that those times, in the daily routine of duty, which find the lungs and bronchial tubes freest from the oppression arising from sympathy with the stomach, in its process of digestion, should be selected for tice. Proceeding upward toward the organs of articulation, we arrive at the trachea, or windpipe, the larynx, and the pharynx. It is a prolific subject of discussion among speakers and singers, whether the character of the tone de

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pends as much upon the size of the lungs, the bronchial tubes, the windpipe, the larynx, and the pharynx, as it does upon the condition of the muscles and nerves, and more remotely still upon the general organization, temperament, will, and endurance of the speaker or singer. It is surprising to notice the compass and the variety of tone which the larynx can produce, by using the vowels alone. Beginning with the lowest sounds of the base voice, and ascending in regular order through its limits, of one and a half or two octaves; through the compass of the baritone, with a similar register, though somewhat higher in pitch; and, successively, through the registers assigned to the tenor, contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices, there is embraced a compass of four octaves of available tones, susceptible of cultivation to an almost infinite degree of excellence. Base voices confine themselves mainly to the use of the chest tones throughout their entire register; but the baritones, by a prudent use of the somber tone, and of the medium register, greatly increase the pure quality and flexibility of the higher portions of their voices. For the orator or declaimer, there is no quality of tone comparable to that of the orotund base or barytone voice; and, in the oratorio and opera, it is assigned to characters of inherent dignity and force. The tenor voice, undoubtedly, demands a combination of native and acquired qualities, which, in some countries, are exceedingly rare. In its uncultivated state it is thin, reedy, and somewhat nasal; but steady, persevering practice upon the open vowels ah, oh, and oo, soon corrects this defect, and renders the tenor, of all male voices, the most tender and expressive. Great care should be exercised by tenor voices, lest the clear timbre of the chest tone be carried too high, thereby crushing out the delicacy of the real medium register, which is the most flexible and available part of the tenor voice. The contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices encounter a similar difficulty, at the very outset of their practice, in combining the chest with the falsetto or medium voice. While this difficulty occurs in the higher register of the male voice, it is found in the lower register of the female voice, and presents obstacles in the way of cultivation, which nothing but long and persistent practice can overcome, though the strain upon the nervous system is far less than that experienced by the male voice. The contralto yields to no other female voice in depth and richness of tone, as is clearly evident after listening to singers like D'Angri and Alboni. Naturally not so flexible as the soprano or mezzo-soprano, it is yet endowed with a wonderful power in causing effects replete with the most ardent passion, and with the most noble womanly feeling. There is a great temptation to abuse the lower register of the contralto voice by indulging in the disagreeable habit of forcing the chest tones to a point bordering upon masculineness, if not positive coarseness. The practice of descending runs, diatonic and

chromatic, using the medium, veiled, or somber tone, will gradually change this objectionable habit. There are not wanting cases, also, of contralto voices which have been destroyed by attempts to cultivate the tone and compass of the soprano,-a process absurd and unnatural to the last degree. Notwithstanding the efforts of some late authors to ignore the division of the female voice into at least three different registers, namely, the chest, the medium or falsetto, and the head; these registers are now generally recognized by the highest and most competent authorities. Elaborate methods and studies for the development of the contralto. mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices have been devised with these three divisions constantly in view. Some even assert that there are five distinct registers, requiring as many different modes of producing the tone,-a condition of the larynx and pharynx suggesting an expertness in the management of the voice which may well be deemed bewildering. It is, however, too certain to admit of a doubt, that the voices of the most accomplished female vocalists living have been trained by recognizing this division into the chest, medium or falsetto, and head registers, and are, moreover, preserved in their wonted availability by adhering to the same method. Allusion has been made to the pharynx, or arched chamber immediately back of the palate, a most important modifier of the voice in its passage from the larynx, and the expansion and contraction of which gives greater or less volume of tone, especially if the root of the tongue be not artificially enlarged, so as to produce an impure throatiness of tone, frequently heard in voices imperfectly cultivated and badly managed. To know the important influence of a healthy pharynx under complete control, it is only necessary to compare the voice of one possessing it, to that of a vocalist suffering with a cold in the head, or with a catarrhal affection and swollen tonsils. The difference in the clearness of the vibrations, and in the diffusive character of the tone, is very perceptible and marked.-A clear knowledge of the organs which are employed in producing a vocal tone, and of the proper combination of the registers to secure power, purity, and equality throughout the entire vocal compass being gained, the organs of articulation present themselves for particular consideration; and this leads directly to the subject of musical elocution. System and facility in breathing, the employment of all the proper organs, in their healthy condition, for the production of a pure tone, expertness in reading music, and the minutest attention to attitude and gesture, will all fail to produce an impression worth remembering, unless a true conception of the meaning of the words and music, a bold enunciation, a distinct articulation, a wellrounded phrasing, and an accurate intonation be added to the acquirements of the finished vocalist. Conception relates to both words and music. If it be necessary for the speaker to study well the signification of words, in order to

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get at the true meaning of the poet, it is even | tive, nor the adjective from the noun, by a sepamore necessary for the singer to do so, since the rate breathing; nor should the syllables of a word effect of melody and harmony upon all per- be separated. Long diatonic or chromatic runs, sons, is such as to deprive them, measurably, arpeggios, trills, and cadenzas, must, however, be of the power, for the time being, of judging of executed with an unbroken continuity of the the signification of words. The singer who rests musical phrase. The orotund basso or barytone, upon the simple effect of his melody, is certainly as well as the rich and deep contralto, require to as weak as the speaker who relies upon his man- be particular in their articulation, in order to be ner of uttering fine language, rather than upon heard, since the very fullness of their voices prothe strength of the ideas involved. A true con- duces a resonance not easily overcome in large ception, it is hardly necessary to add, is the assembly rooms. Good phrasing implies good rarest of possessions among modern vocalists. singing; such a knowledge of the composer's idea Pronunciation, in its musical connection, not on the part of the singer, as shall not mar, to say only implies that enunciation, or careful throw- the least, either the poetic or musical symmetry ing out of each syllable and word which good of what is sung. The singer should be able to speech and declamation require, but also that analyze the phrases he sings, in order that, in which, not particularly recognizing the inflec- melodic and harmonic construction, he may distions of reading or declamation, is entirely ab- cover where they begin, how they progress, and sorbed in the far more permeating channel of where they end. But, if he cannot do this, he sound, a melody or recitative song according to should be able, intuitively to grasp a musical a given key or scale. Dr. Rush alludes to this as passage to the fullest extent of its melodic the special advantage which the singer has over proportions, and spontaneously to present it the speaker. Slowness and quickness of utter- with such accessories as shall make it appear his ance are also controlled, to so great a degree, in own. All the bright coloring which may be immusic, by the relations of the notes, the bar, the parted by a vivid conception, a good pronunciafractional measure-marks, and words indicating tion and articulation, will be seriously dimmed varieties of movement, that there is left less lib- by defective phrasing. Last, but by no means erty to the singer than to the speaker, in many least, there must be the accurate intonation respects. But such curtailment of liberty (which which is the result of a correct ear. Some perliberty, by the way, is often a clog to inex- sons do not hear correctly, concords becoming to perienced speakers), and, by consequence, greater them discords. Whether it be a local difficulty concentration upon the characteristics of the of the tympanum, or, as is more probable, a melody, only tie the singer to a more vivid con- rigidity of the entire organization and sluggishception of the subject, and to a more distinct ness of temperament, the fact is obvious that pronunciation of the words. For the correction defective ears are by no means uncommon; and, of marked inelegancies of pronunciation, whether of course, to imitate musical sounds with the of foreign or native growth, no means are so voice, in such cases, is an impossibility. The effective as the careful study of the classic lan- commonness of the defect increases, as we proguages, together with the study of the principal ceed low in the scale of social being, particularly modern languages taught by native professors. where, in addition to poverty and moral degraOf these latter, the Italian is most musical in it- dation, there is superadded the prolific cause, abself, and, therefore, is most useful to the musical sence of youthful opportunities of hearing music student, whose pronunciation of his native lan- well sung or played. Could all classes, without guage, particularly if he be English or German, exception, be gladdened, when young, by hearwill be vastly improved by often reading and ing music correctly sung and played, the numsinging in the most euphonious of modern lan- ber of those who pass through life unmoved “by guages. Of distinct articulation, it may in gen- the concord of sweet sounds," would be much eral be said, that the vowels only are sung, while diminished. It is important, also, that the sounds the consonants are articulated; in other words, heard by children, be correct both as to melody that the vowels are sung, and the consonants are and rhythm, if it be expected that such children, spoken. In vocalizing alone, the larynx, obedient when grown, shall have a so-called good ear for to the mind and will, performs unassisted, save music. In remarking upon articulation, the by the lungs, trachea, pharynx, and diaphragm, value of the vowel sounds ah, ee, oh, and oo was all those changes which promote power, purity, noticed; and it is known that a thorough scale, sweetness, and flexibility of tone. Some slight and rhythmical use of these, combined with all changes in the position of the jaws, tongue, and the consonants as initial and final letters, will lips are necessary in vocalizing with ah, ee, oh, not only develop a more distinct articulation, and oo; but only the consonants, as initial, in- but also a purer, more effective, and manageable termediate, or final letters, require a constant tone. For standard authorities, on this subject, and vigorous use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, see RUSH, Philosophy of the Human Voice which are the chief agents in acquiring an effect- (Phila., 1833); ÉDOUARD FOURNIERE, Physiologie ive articulation. Full respirations should be de la Voix et de la Parole (Paris, 1866); EMANUEL the rule, and partial respirations the exception. GARCIA, École du Chant (London); BASSINI, Art In plain music, where one or two notes are ap- of Singing (Boston, 1856); New Method (Bospropriated to a syllable, the article should not ton, 1869); EMMA SEILER, The Voice in Singing be separated from the noun or qualifying adjec-| (Phila., 1868).

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WABASH COLLEGE

WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY

WABASH COLLEGE, at Crawfordsville, Ind., chartered in 1833, is under Presbyterian control. It has productive funds to the amount of $240,000, and libraries containing 17000 volumes. It has an English and commercial, a preparatory, and a collegiate department, the latter with a classical and a scientific course. The cost of tuition is from $24 to $30 a year. There are several scholarships. In 1875-6, there were 12 instructors and 220 students (104 collegiate, 64 preparatory, and 52 English and commercial). The Rev. Joseph F. Tuttle, D. D., is (1877) the president.

WACO UNIVERSITY, at Waco, Tex., founded in 1861, is under Baptist control. 1 has a small endowment, but is supported chiefly by tuition fees, the regular charge ranging from $15 to $25 per term of five months. The libraries contain about 2,500 volumes. It has a preparatory department, a collegiate department for females, and a classical and a scientific collegiate course for males. In 1875-6, there were 11 instructors and 279 students (157 males and 122 females). The Rev. Rufus C. Burleson, D. D., is (1877) the president.

WAKE FOREST COLLEGE, in Wake Co., N. C., founded in 1834, is under Baptist control. It is supported by tuition fees ($35 per term of five months) and the income of an endowment of $25,000. The libraries contain about 8,000 volumes. The course of study comprises six schools-Latin, Greek, modern languages, mathematics, natural science, and moral philosophy. There is also a preparatory and a commercial course. In 1875-6, there were 5 professors and 91 students. The presidents have been: the Rev. Saml. Wait, D.D.; the Rev. Wm. Hooper, LL. D.; the Rev. John B. White; and the Rev. W. M. Wingate, D. D., the present incumbent (1877).

WASHINGTON. See DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at Washington, Alameda Co., Cal., founded in 1872, for the education of both sexes, is a non-sectarian institution. It has a preparatory, and an academic department with a four years' course. French, Spanish, German, Greek, and Latin, instrumental and vocal music, painting, drawing, etc. are optional studies. The institution is supported by the fees of students, the charge for tuition being from $50 to $80 a year. In 1875-6, there were 10 instructors and 176 students. Silas S. Harmon, A. M., has been the principal since the opening of the college.

WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at Chestertown, Md., founded in 1782, is a non-sectarian institution. There is a preparatory and a collegiate department. The cost of tuition, except to holders of scholarships, ranges from $40 to $60 a year. The library contains about 1,300 volumes. In 1875-6, there were 3 instructors and 37 students (10 preparatory and 27 col

legiate). The presidents have been the Rev. Dr. Wm. Smith, the Rev. Dr. Colin Ferguson, Dr. Clowes, the Rev. Dr. Waters, R. W. Ringold, the Rev. A. J. Sutton, R. C. Berkeley, and Wm. J. Rivers, the latter since 1873.

WASHINGTON AND JEFFERSON COLLEGE, at Washington, Pa., under Presbyterian control, was formed, in 1865, by the consolidation of Jefferson College (at Canonsburg, chartered in 1802), and Washington College (chartered in 1806). The former grew out of the Canonsburg Academy, opened in 1791; the latter had its origin in the Washington Academy, chartered in 1787, and opened in 1789. The consolidated institution has an endowment of $220,000, a cabinet, and libraries containing 9,000 volumes. Tuition to holders of scholarships is free; to others the fee is $24 a year. There is a preparatory and a collegiate department, the latter having a classical and a scientific course. In 1875-6, there were 8 professors and 175 students (140 collegiate and 35 preparatory). The presidents have been as follows: the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, D. D., LL. D., 1866-9; the Rev. Saml. J. Wilson, D. D., LL. D. (pro tem.), 1869; the Rev. James J. Brownson, D.D. (pro tem.), 1870; and the Rev. Geo. P. Hays, D. D., since 1870.

WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY, at Lexington, Va., was chartered in 1782. Its germ was a mathematical and classical school, called the Augusta Academy, established, in 1749, near the site of Greenville, Augusta Co. In 1776, the name was changed to Liberty Hall. After several removals, it was located near Lexington, in 1785; and, in 1803, it was finally removed to its present site, within the limits of the town. The first commencement was held in 1785. In 1796, Washington donated to the institution the 100 shares of stock in the old James River Company, which the legislature had given him, and the name was changed to Washington College. In 1803, the Cincinnati Society appropriated their funds, nearly $25,000, to the college. During the civil war, the institution was suspended. Soon after the death of Gen. Lee, in 1870, the present name was adopted. The university is supported by tuition fees (generally $70, a year, in the academic departments, and $85, in the professional departments), and the income of endowments amounting to $200,000. It has a library of 12,000 volumes, mineralogical, geological, and zoological cabinets, and valuable philosophical and chemical apparatus. The distinguishing features of the university are: (1) The arrangement of the course of study into distinct elective schools or departments; (2) The adaptation of the several departments to certain courses of study, to each of which is attached a corresponding degree. No degrees are conferred in course; but all are based upon actual attainments in a

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