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AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real. genuine, and natural, is carefully to be guarded against in the education of the young. In certain peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to the formation of habits of affectation in manners and speech. This tendency, however, rarely shows itself at an early age. Children generally yield to their natural impulses, and do not assume or feign what they do not feel, or, to use a common expression, "put on airs." Their mode of training, however, may tend to this, particularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural mode of expression in phraseology or pronunciation, in the attempt to make them excessively precise in such matters. Some styles of reading and elocution may lead to this characteristic; and hence the importance of adopting methods that, in all respects. correspond to the prevailing usage. Certainly, nothing can be more disgusting than the forced imitation of peculiar and unnatural models of conceived propriety of speech and manners, which we sometimes find to prevail among the pupils of certain schools, or the "mincing airs" which are often assumed by those, both male and female, but particularly the latter, who affect to belong to the best society, and hence arrogate to themselves a superior degree of refinement. The standard of the educator should be, in every respect, that ease, grace. simplicity, and beauty that belong to what is natural; and every tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be promptly and sternly repressed. Locke says: "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much better than an artificial ungracefulness, and such studied ways of being ill-fashioned. The want of an accomplishment, or some defect in our behavior, coming short of the utmost gracefulness, often scapes observation; but affectation in any part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to our defects, and never fails to make us to be taken notice of, either as wanting sense or wanting sincerity."- See LOCKE, Thoughts concerning Education.

AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph. This eminent naturalist and teacher was born at Motiers, near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, May 28., 1807, and died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14., 1873. His ancestors were Huguenots, driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father was the pastor of a protestant parish; his mother, the daughter of a physician. Under the latter he received his first education till the age of eleven, when he was sent to the gymnasium at Bienne, where he remained four years. His subsequent studies were pursued at the college of Lausanne, the medical school of Zurich, and the universities of Heidelberg and Munich. At the latter place, he particularly distinguished himself for his attainments in natural history. At Paris, he made the acquaintance of Humboldt and Cuvier, both of whom held him in high esteem for his talents and scientific acquirements. In 1846, he came to the United States, being invited to deliver a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute, in Boston. The next year, he accepted the appointment of

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professor of zoology and geology in the Lawrence Scientific School, then just established. He commenced his duties in 1848, and settled permanently in the United States, where his greatest fame was achieved by his numerous labors as a naturalist and a scientific lecturer and teacher. The establishment of the Anderson School of Natural History on Penikese Island in 1873, was almost the last act of his life. The means for founding this school were furnished by Mr. John Anderson, a generous and public-spirited citizen of New York, who not only devoted for this object the island of Penikese, but the sum of $50,000, as a permanent endowment. Agassiz had long advocated the establishment of such a school for the special instruction of teachers in marine zoology; and during the summer of 1873, he devoted his time and energies to this institution, being present at every exercise and lecture, and the constant companion of the students. His chief publications were Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, 1833-1844; Études sur les glaciers, 1840; Système gla ciaire, 1847, and Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. Though chiefly eminent as a naturalist, and particularly in the department of ichthyology, he was an accomplished linguist, being versed in six languages. He read Plato and Aristotle in the original, wrote several works in elegant Latin, and was a good Hebraist. French and German were to him vernacular tongues, and he could speak and write the English language with ease and correctness. He was a natural teacher, fond of giving instruction, patient and sympathetic, overflowing with an earnest love for his subject, and having a mind replete with stores of information. His voice, look, and manner at once gained the attention of his pupils: and the clearness of his explanations as well as the fluency of his delivery gave interest to every subject upon which he spoke. His skill in ready graphic delineations with chalk and blackboard was astonishing, and greatly contributed to the effectiveness of his teaching. Few have ever made such rich additions to the stores of science, or have been more zealous in diffusing the benefits of knowledge among mankind. His example as a teacher has been of very great value, since his system was to teach from natural objects rather than from books, to enable the pupil to acquire an experience of his own before presenting to his mind the results of the experience and observation of others. His own assumed title. Louis Agassiz-Teacher," was the one of which he seemed to be most proud; and all teachers should cherish the example which he set, as the true means of success.

AGE, in Education. The life of man has been variously divided into periods, or ages. Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Macrobius ten, different ages, while others have preferred a division into five, six, seven, or eight. With regard to the education of man, one great turning point stands forth so conspicuously, that teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad

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line of demarcation, into whatever number of AGE.) Of course, instruction at such an age periods they have thought it proper to divide must be limited to the most elementary rudihuman life. This turning-point in life is the ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. period when man passes from the age of youth The method should be thoroughly adapted to the into that of virility. The physical development mental condition of the child, and modern eduat this time has become complete; in social life cators are agreed in recognizing the importance both sexes have attained majority; and the edu- of object teaching for the first stages of a child's cation of the young man or woman for the instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially career that has been selected, is, in the main, con- intended as introductory to the regular primary cluded. Up to this time, the education of man school, is the Kindergarten, founded by Froebel. is conducted by others, chiefly parents and The astonishing rapidity with which it has spread teachers; henceforward, he is expected to edu-through all the countries of the civilized world, cate himself, and to assume the education of others.

During the period of life when man is dependent upon others for his education, three different ages are broadly distinguished.-childhood, boyhood or girlhood, and youth. These are marked, in the physical development of the body, by the shelding of teeth, the entrance of puberty, and the setting in of virility. The process of mental development in these three ages is as different as the physical basis; and, accordingly, each of them demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical

treatment.

Childhood, which embraces the first seven years of life, is characterized by the rapid growth and development of the organs of the body. At the age of seven a child weighs about six times as much as at its birth, and it has attained one half of the stature, and about one third or one fourth of the weight of the grown man. The min is, during this period, more receptive than selfactive; the only manifestations of self-activity being found in the efforts to retain and arrange the impressions which have been received. All pedagogical influence upon the pupil in this age can be only of a preparatory character. The body must be guarded against injuries, and must have opportunities for a vigorous and manifold develop ment. The mind must be preserved from debasing, weakening, or over-exciting influences, and must be kept open for anything that is conducive to the development of its faculties; and, in order not to become sated and confused, it must learn to distinguish what is important from the less important. As the child is thoroughly dependent upon its educator and unable to direct its own exertions, it should be made to understand as clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own will to that of its educators can be followed by only evil consequences. It should, therefore, be taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, for fear has a repressive influence upon the development of the mental faculties, but an obedience springing from confidence in the superior wisdom and experience of the teacher, and from love produced by his kindness. The natural educators of the child are the parents, especially the mother; but, toward the close of this age, systematic teaching by a professional teacher begins. Legislation in regard to the school age differs considerably in different countries. In some, children are sent to the public schools when they are four years of age; in others, not until they are seven. (See SCHOOL,

and found admission into educational systems otherwise radically at variance, seems to prove it to be a great improvement in elementary education. (See KINDERGARTEN.)

Boyhood or girlhood embraces the time from the 7th to the 14th year of age. In the development of the body, this age is characterized by the appearance of the permanent teeth, by the completed growth of the brain, and by the first consciousness of sexual difference. Poys and girls long for the free and frequent exercise of their muscular systems. At the beginning of this age, girls like to take an active part in the plays of the boys; but they soon show a preference for more quiet occupations and less publicity; while, on the other hand, boys manifest an increased interest in noisy and wild sports. It is among the prime duties of the educators of this age, to keep the development of the natural desires and aspirations of the two sexes within the right channels. The minds of boys and girls afford many proofs of independent thought and activity. The company of adults is not sought for by them as eagerly as before, but they feel entire satisfaction in the society of children of their own age. They think, as yet, little of the realities of life and of their future careers; but their plays give more evidence, than before, of plan, serious thought, and perseverance, and generally indicate the faculties with which they have been most strongly endowed; each child, in this way, foreboding to some extent its future career. It is of great importance that the educator should not only understand the peculiar nature of this age in general, but that he should thoroughly know the character of each individual; for the faults which are peculiar to this age are best overcome in individual cases, if the educator knows how to make the right kind of appeal to those good qualities of his pupils which are most strongly developed. In arranging a course of instruction for this age, it must be specially remembered that the minds of boys and girls are predominantly receptive. The memory readily receives and faithfully retains impressions; and this, therefore, is the right time for learning a foreign language and geographical and historical facts. The independence of mind peculiar to this age shows itself at the same time in the growth of imagination, which awakens in the boy a lively interest in all that is great and extraordinary in history. On many questions relating to the education proper for this age, educators still differ. Prominent among these

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questions, are, whether the two sexes should be educated separately or conjointly, to what extent the same course of instruction should be prescribed for both, whether special studies should be begun at this age, or whether the entire course should be obligatory for all the children of a school. (See Co-EDUCATION OF the SEXES.)

The age of youth extends from the beginning of puberty to the complete development of sexuality, or from the fourteenth to about the twentyfirst year of age. At this time the growth of the body is completed; young men and women become aware of their special duties of life and of the difference in the careers upon which they are respectively to enter. The time of study is drawing to its close; the entrance into active life is at hand. Among the lower classes of society, this transition occurs at the beginning of this age; and the only increase of knowledge that is accessible to most persons of these classes must be derived from evening schools, public lectures, and reading; while those of the wealthier classes, and all who wish to fit themselves for any of the learned professions, now enter upon the special studies of those professions, or finish the general studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of this period, if not earlier, the preparations for entering public life are completed, or an actual entrance into life begins.-See SCHWARZ, Erziehungslehre; SCHLEIERMACHER, Erziehungslehre, edited by PLATZ BENEKE, Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre; HERBART, Umriss pädagogischer Vorlesungen.

AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, an eminent educator of the middle ages, was born in August 1443 (or 1442) at Baflo, near Groningen, in Holland. His original name was Huysmann, which, after the custom of his time, he exchanged for a Latin name. After his native province, Friesland, he is also sometimes called Frisius. He studied at the universities of Louvain, Paris, and Ferrara; and, after returning to his native country, distinguished himself greatly by introducing the study of Greek into the countries north of the Alps. In 1483, he accepted an invitation from his friend, Bishop Dalberg of Worms, and delivered lectures alternately at Heidelberg and at Worms. He died in Heidelberg, Oct. 28., 1485. His works, which are not very numerous, are written in Latin. His principal work De Inventione dialectica attacks the scholastic philosophy of the age. In an educational point of view, his epistle to Barbirianus in Antwerp, the so-called Epistola de formando studio, is of special importance. At the time of its publication, it was regarded as a compendium of the pedagogical views of the German humanists. Its prime object was to advise his friend as to the continuation of his studies. Agricola recommended philosophy, by which term he understood also ethics and physics, and, in general, the entire range of natural science, as the study most deserving his friend's attention; he represents it as the only road to true knowledge and perfect felicity, while the other sciences could procure only a doubtful happiness. The Latin language was

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regarded at that time as necessary for this study, but Agricola advised his friend always to reproduce what he had learned in German. Three things were needed for pursuing any study: (1) To understand what had been learned; (2) To retain what had been understood; (3) To derive advantage from what had been learned. The first was obtained by application, the second was the gift of memory, the third could only be acquired by practice. While the works left by Agricola would alone not suffice to assign to him a prominent place among the educators of the middle ages, it appears from the writings of his contemporaries that his personal influence was very great, and that, in fact, he was regarded as second to none but his friend Reuchlin. His letters to Reuchlin, to Alexander Hegius, an excellent educator, who founded the famous school of Deventer, to Antonius Liber of Soest, a very zealous humanist, who, after fruitless efforts to establish a school at Emmerich, Kampen, and Amsterdam, at length succeeded at Alkmaar, where he died in 1514, and to other contemporaries, contain a large amount of information on the educational movements of his times. A complete edition of the works of Agricola has been published by Alardus, of Amsterdam (Cologne. 1539).-See SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik, 11, 452; RAUMER, Geschichte der Pädagogik, trans. in BARNARD'S German Educational Reformers; GEIGER, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, 1, 151–156; TRESLING, Vita et merita Rudolphi Agricole (Groningen, 1830); HALLAM'S Literature of Europe.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is only within the last fourteen years that any general and systematic effort has been made in the United States to furnish facilities for acquiring a thorough scientific and practical education in agriculture. In 1862, Congress gave to the several states and territories land scrip to the amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and representative in Congress, provided that each state or territory, claiming the benefit of this act, should, within five years from its passage, "provide not less than one college, which should receive for its endowment, support, and maintenance the interest of all moneys derived from the sale of the aforesaid scrip or lands." It was further required that "the leading object" of these colleges "should be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes, in the several pursuits and professions of life." The main supporter of this law was the Hon. Justin S. Morrill, senator from Vermont. Of all laws enacted, either state or national, for the advancement of higher education, no one has ever been productive of such fruitful results. The originators and framers of this law, "builded better than they knew." The tabulated statement below, while it shows a vast amount accomplished in a short space of time, cannot, of

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increased population shall furnish a demand for the products of the soil at prices sufficiently remunerative to induce many trained and educated men to embark in agriculture.

It is difficult to give an exact statement of the present condition of agricultural colleges, since they are only a part of colleges or universities devoted also to teaching mechanic arts, and scientific and classical studies more or less germane to agriculture. We find that, in this department, and in that of mechanics,there are at present about 300 professors and teachers. So far as reported, 361 students have graduated after a full course in agriculture. According to the usual proportion of freshmen to graduates. this would indicate that 1.444 had pursued the course for a longer or a shorter period. The number of graduates who during their course have, to use the phraseology of the act of Congress endowing these institutions, pursued studies "relating to agriculture and the mechanic arts," is 669; making the total number who have entered these courses, for a longer or a shorter period, 2,676. The number of students, so far as reported, in all the departments of the institutions named, is 6,907, of whom 715 are ladies, and 2,889 are receiving instruction in military tactics. The minimum cost of board-usually in clubs is $1.25 per week; the maximum cost, $5.00; and the average, $3.00. The cost of room rent per term ranges from $1.33 to $12.00. In all but two or three institutions, some provision is made for a greater or less number of free scholarships, and several offer free tuition for all. As a general rule, no

necessity, give more than a faint idea of what has been done in advancing agricultural education in the single direction of a systematic and thorough collegiate training. Looking back over the last ten years, we notice that those engaged in agriculture have made marvelous progress in general information, as well as in technical subjects having a direct bearing upon their special calling. This has been largely brought about by the munificent endowments of Congress. For as soon as the act had become a law, numerous energetic and far-seeing men brought the matter prominently before the several state legislatures, setting forth the great benefits that would arise from an acceptance of the donation. Some strenuously opposed its acceptance, as it would add heavy burdens, in order to furnish buildings etc., to those already imposed by the war; and others opposed it, believing the whole scheme to be chimerical and impracticable. Through these discussions, which have not yet wholly ceased, much valuable information has been disseminated; and the effect has been, to arouse thoroughly the agricultural classes to a sense of their rights and duties. These earnest and continued discussions have developed latent talents. and excited a desire for information among the farmers, that is, as yet, only partially gratified. They have made it possible to publish and sustain numerous agricultural journals with regular contributions from the pen of many of the ablest writers on the practical and scientific subjects of the day. They have created such a demand for agricultural literature, that a large proportion of our relig-pains have been spared by these colleges to furious and political journals devote more or less space to the subject. These are but a few of the incidental results of this wise and munificent act of Congress; and they are none the less real or beneficial, although they cannot be tabulated or set forth in long columns of figures. Such rapid strides have been made in some directions within the last few years, that a chemist and a laboratory have become a necessary adjunct to many of the agricultural industries.-notably to that of the manufacture of cheese, butter, and commercial fertilizers. Up to 1865, the agricultural college of Lansing, Mich., was the only one in the United States in which students could pursue a college course arranged and adapted to meet the wants of those who might desire, in after years, to engage in agriculture. Since that time, some thirty colleges have been organized-about one half of them from parts of universities which are largely devoted "to teaching such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts." The donation of lands by Congress did not furnish endowment sufficient fully to equip and man these numerous institutions; but it afforded the means to lay the firm foundations upon which, aided by state and individual munificence, have been reared many noble institutions of learning, which are doing an important and much-needed work. We can hardly conceive of the grand and important position these institutions are to occupy when the wants of an

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nish all the facilities for pursuing a college course at the least possible expense. Manual labor is required in 11 of the colleges; in the others, it is optional. The price paid for students' labor ranges from 5 to 18 cents per hour. propriations have been made of nearly one and a half million of dollars, which have been largely used for erecting buildings. The amount of private donations it is impossible to arrive at accurately, but they cannot fall short of $5,000,000. The late Ezra Cornell gave $700,000 to the university that bears his rame, and the total amount of private donations to this single institution is not less than $1,400,000, of which the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts have received their due proportion. The number and equipment of laboratories, workshops, etc., in the colleges that serve, directly or indirectly, to illustrate and teach subjects relating to agriculture, are as follows: mechanical laboratories or workshops, 10, all of which are furnished with tools for working in iron and wood, and several with engines, planers, turning-lathes, drilling-machines, saws, and other necessary but less expensive tools physical laboratories, 16, most of which are furnished with apparatus for illustrating the subjects of mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat, acoustics, and optics. All, with one or two exceptions, have well-equipped chemical laboratories; and several of them furnish facilities for instruction in chemistry not excelled in any other

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institutions in the United States. Nine anatomical, 12 geological, and 15 botanical laboratories are already equipped for student practice. Eight of these colleges have greenhouses in operation; most of them have drafting-rooms, with the necessary tables and models for illustrating the subjects taught. A large amount of practice in drawing is, moreover, required in several of the branches related to agriculture. Free-hand drawing, as yet, has not been largely introduced. Some ten colleges have large collections of models of farm implements and machinery; engravings, photographs, charts, and drawings; together with numerous specimens of grains, grasses, and other plants; geological and mineralogical specimens; collections of insects and skeletons of domestic and other animals; all constituting what might be called an agricultural museum, though usually kept in separate rooms for the sake of convenience. Ten of these institutions offer one or more prizes for good scholarship; six report, through their leading officer, that the effect of offering such prizes appears to be "good;" six consider it bad;" two, "doubtful;" one, that it depends on circumstances;" one, that it is "a healthy stimulant to be carefully used;" and one, non constat." At least twelve appear to have kept careful accounts of farm receipts and expenditures; but since we have no reports of the amount of increase in the valuations of farm-stock, implements, etc., it is impossible to say whether the farms are worked at a profit or a loss. The total gross receipts of twelve farms reported, for 1874, are $64,329.60, or an average of $5,360.80 per farm. The total expenditures for experiments, during the same year, on eight of these farms, are $8,143.26. This indicates that farm experiments are not, as yet, carried on to any great extent; and the reason for this is, doubtless, a lack of means rather than of disposition. Every professor of agriculture fully appreciates the benefit, not only to his class but to himself as well, of extended and systematically conducted experiments. They are, indeed, effective but costly auxiliaries to the class-room lectures. There is a constantly increasing tendency toward using the farm and its appliances, regardless of profit or loss, in order to teach and illustrate the principles of agriculture, rather than as has too often been the case-using it simply as a means of increasing the common fund. The aggregate number of acres used for general and experimental farming by twenty of these colleges is 5,081; added to which there are 142 acres of orchard, 92 acres of vegetable garden, 29 acres of small-fruit garden, 1.360 acres of native timber, 438 acres of planted timber, and 580 acres used as college grounds. Though we find that the planted timber is about six acres to each hundred of arable land,-which is certainly a very creditable showing yet forestry is taught to but a limited extent, there being no distinctive course yet marked out in that branch of study. We are far behind some of the European countries in our facilities and methods for

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training students in the art and practice of the care, preservation, and planting of forests. As a part of the equipment for illustration and practice on these farms. are found some 500 head of neat-cattle, 236 of which are thorough-breds, representing nine distinct breeds. The horses and mules number 129, only 3 of which are thorough-breds; the total number of sheep is 233, of which 58 are pure bloods of various breeds; the swine exceed 500, including about 400 pure-bred animals, representing nearly all of the well-established breeds. This aggregation of laboratories, workshops, museums, greenhouses, orchards, gardens, farms, and domestic animals is furnished and provided for the express purpose of affording, not only the means for illustrating the subjects taught, but actual experience and skill in those processes which require that the judgment, eye. and hand, as well as the intellect, should be trained.

The propriety and expediency of the Congressional grant by means of which these institutions have been established, have been seriously called in question; indeed, it has been held that the function of government should be strictly confined to the promotion of elementary instruction. In 1873, President Eliot, of Harvard College, took strong ground against the endowment, by the government, of institutions for superior or technical instruction, and was sustained in this view by President McCosh and others. At the session of the National Educational Association, held at Elmira, N. Y., in August, 1873, this question was considerably discussed, and the principle underlying the endowment of the agricultural colleges was ably vindicated in a paper by Prof. G. W. Atherton, of New Jersey, entitled The Relation of the General Government to Education, in which he said, "These younger institutions have a larger average of students, by more than one-tenth, than the long-established colleges, and are fairly occupying with them the field of higher education. In an important sense, however, they are not the rivals of the older colleges. Their graduates, to only a limited extent, enter the learned professions. They become engineers, farmers, mechanics, architects. They labor with hand and brain. They become leaders and organizers of labor, and thus precisely fulfill the intent of Congress when it designed these institutions to furnish a liberal and practical education to the industrial classes.'" Prof. Atkinson, on the same occasion, took similar ground. What," said he, is the government domain but the property of the people, and to what higher use can the people put it than to promote the higher as well as the lower education of all the people? We have in this country no aristocracy of education-not one education, as in the old country. for the masses,' and another and higher one for the privileged minority. The republican principle is, the best education for all-the best and highest education for the masses.' That is the only principle on which republican institutions can be founded." The words of Washington

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