BOOK-MANUAL

ness colleges, in some of which it is pursued by both sexes. It is also taught sometimes in connection with arithmetic and penmanship, in the higher classes of the common schools, and quite uniformly in the evening schools in most of the cities of the Union. This branch of school instruction, however, is often opposed on the ground that it can only be acquired in connection with the actual practice of the countingroom. The objection is not well founded; for while it is obvious that no theoretical instruction, in this or any other art, can supersede the necessity of actual practice, yet that instruction performs an important function in laying the foundation, in the mind of the student, for such practical information and expertness as are subsequently to be attained. In many business colleges. for the purpose of obviating this objection, exercises are resorted to that nearly approximate to the operations of actual business. Thus the students of certain colleges carry on business correspondence with those of others situated in different parts of the United States; make and receive formal consignments of merchandise, buy and sell exchanges upon the different sections of the Union and Canada, and in this way learn the business peculiarities of different places. To insure a complete training, the functions of the students are constantly changed. The one, for instance, who holds the position of bill-clerk and collector to-day, is a book-keeper to-morrow, shipper the next day, etc. By this diversity the exercises are not only made more effective, but more interesting and impressive. (See BUSINESS COLLEGES.) BOOK-MANUAL, a series of directions as to the method in which the reading-book should be held by pupils when they are receiving class instruction. Minute regulations for the distribution of books to the pupils of a class as well as for their proper manipulation while the lesson is given, have been devised, and in some schools are strictly enforced. There is no doubt that a regular and uniform method of this kind not only saves the book from injury occasioned by improper handling, but also contributes to the formation, in the minds of the pupils, of a love and habit of order and propriety, which they will apply to other things. Indeed, it is in connection with the apparently unimportant and trivial things that the teacher needs to exercise the greatest care, if he would educate his pupils in this direction; since such things being of frequent occurrence, habits are more readily formed by the constant repetition which they require than in any other way. The following minute directions were prepared, some years ago, for the schools of New York City, and were for many years in use. They are still employed by many teachers, those referring to book-monitors being usually omitted; since at the present time each pupil of the class is generally supplied with a book of his own. The distribution of books for a given exercise is still often necessary, and hence all the rules hold good:

I. The pupil should stand erect, his heels near to gether, toes turned out, and his face directed toward the teacher.

II. The book-monitor should stand at the head of

the class, with the pile of books to be distributed the top of the page to the right hand. across his left arm, with the backs from him, and with

III. The book-monitor, with the right hand, hands a book to each pupil in succession, who should receive it in his right hand with the back of the book to the should hold it with the back upward, until a further left, and then pass it into the left hand, in which he order is given.

IV. When the page is given out, the book should be turned by the thumb on the side; and, while held with thumbs meeting across the leaves at a point judged to both hands, turned with the back downward, the be nearest the place to be found. On opening the book, the left hand slides down to the bottom, and thence to the middle, when the thumb and little finger page is thus found, the pupil stands holding the book are made to press on the two opposite pages. If the in his left hand, and lets his right hand fall by his side.

V. But if the pupil has opened short of the page required, the thumb of the right hand is to be placed near the upper corner of the page, while the forefinger lifts the leaves to bring in view the number of the page. If he finds he has not raised enough, the forefinger and thumb hold those already raised while the second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them within the grasp of the thumb and finger. When the required page is found, all the fingers are to be passed under the leaves, and the whole turned at once. Should the pupil, on the contrary, have opened too far, and be obliged to turn back, he places the right thumb, in like manner, on the left hand page, and the leaves are lifted as before described.

VI. Should the book be old, or so large as to make it wearisome to the pupil, the right hand may sustain the left in holding it.

VII. While reading, as the eye rises to the top of the right hand page, the right hand is raised; and with the forefinger under the leaf, the hand is slid down to the lower corner, and retained there during the reading of this page. This also is the position in which the book is to be held when about to be closed; in doing which, the left hand, being carried up to the side, supports the book firmly, while the right hand turns the part it supports over on the left thumb. The thumb will then be drawn out from between the leaves, and placed on the cover; and then the right hand will fall by the side.

VIII. When the reading is ended, the right hand retains the book, and the left hand falls by the side. The book will then be in a position to be handed to the book-monitor, who should receive it in his right hand, and place it on his left arm, with the back towards the body. The books will then be in the most suitable situation for being passed to the shelves, or drawers, where, without being crowded, they should be placed with uniformity and care.

See Manual of Public School Society (New York, 1840); Report of the Board of Education of the City of New York (1855).

BORGI, Giovanni, called the "founder of ragged schools," was born in Rome about 1735, and died about 1802. He was a poor artisan, who took a compassionate interest in vagrant children. He commenced his benevolent work by taking a number of these children to his home, providing them with food and clothing, and apprenticing them to trades. Enlisting the active interest of others, he was able to hire a suitable building, in which considerable numbers could be accommodated and taught; thus establishing what was afterwards called in Scotland and England a "ragged school." The institution and found an earnest patron in Pope Pius VII. founded by Borgi was continued after his death, (See RAGGED SCHOOLS.)

BOSTON, the capital and metropolis of Massachusetts, having a population, in 1875, of 341,919. The origin of the public-school system of Boston is found in the following order adopted by the freemen of the town, on the 13th of April, 1635: "Likewise it was then generally agreed upon, that our brother Philemon Purmont shall be entreated to become schoolmaster for the teaching and nurturing of children with us." The school thus set up has been perpetuated to the present day, and has long been known as the Public Latin School, whose chief function, during the whole period of its existence, has been the fitting of boys for Harvard College. This was the only public school in the town until 1682, when it was voted, in town meeting, "that a committee with the selectmen consider and provide one or more free schools for the teaching of children to write and cipher within this town." Afterward, schools were established for teaching reading and spelling. These reading and writing schools have been gradually developed into the present grammar schools. Pupils were not admitted to these schools until they were seven years of age. Girls were not admitted to the grammar school until 1789; and, during the next forty years, they were permitted to attend only half the year, from April to October. In 1818, primary schools were established to fit pupils of both sexes for the grammar schools, to which children four years old and upward were admitted. In 1821, a school similar to the German real school, and named the English High School, "was instituted, with the design of furnishing the young men of this city, who are not intended for a collegiate course of study, and who have enjoyed the usual advantages of the other public schools, with the means of completing a good English education." A normal school for qualifying female teachers for the public schools of the city was established in 1852, in which a two years' course of training was provided. The plan of this school was soon modified by extending its course of study to three years, and by including in its curriculum all the branches usually taught in high schools. In 1872, this twofold institution, which bore the name of the Girls' High and Normal School, was separated into two distinct schools, a normal school for girls and a high school for girls. By the annexation of adjacent municipalities, during the past eight years, five mixed high schools have been added to the free public schools for secondary instruction. Elementary evening schools, and day schools for newsboys and bootblacks (licensed minors), were established in 1868; an evening high school, in 1869; a school for deaf-mutes, in 1869; evening industrial drawing schools, in 1870; a kindergarten, in 1870. The public schools were originally, and for more then a century and a half, managed by the selectmen of the town, the clergy being invited by them to visit the schools, especially on public occasions. From 1789, until the adoption of the city charter, in 1822, they were controlled by a board composed of the selectmen and twelve committee men, annually elected in town meet

ing. Under the charter, the selectmen were replaced by the eight aldermen. From 1835 until 1855, the school board, called the Grammar School Board, consisted of twenty-four committee men, two being elected annually by the people in each ward, with the mayor and the president of the common council, ex officio. Up to this time, the primary schools had been under the management of a board, appointed annually by the Grammar School Board, consisting of one member for each school or teacher, the number being at first 36, but increased finally to 190.` During the past twenty years, the school system of public schools has been in charge of one board, consisting originally of 74 members, 6 being elected in each ward by the people, to hold office for three years, the mayor and president of the common council being also members. By the annexation of municipalities above mentioned, the number of members was ultimately increased to 116. This board was discontinued at the beginning of 1876; and, in its place, a board was constituted consisting of the mayor, and 24 members elected by the people on a general ticket, to hold office for three years.— The office of superintendent of schools was established in 1851. The first incumbent was Nathan Bishop, who was succeeded by John D. Philbrick, who held the office for nearly 18 years, retiring in 1874. The old board did not fill the vacancy; and Mr. Philbrick was re-elected to the office by the new board in 1876. Under the new system of supervision, the school board is authorized to elect a board of six supervisors. The following persons were elected to this board: Lucretia Crocker, George M. Folsom, Samuel W. Mason, William Nichols, Ellis Peterson, and Benjamin F. Tweed. The superintendent is, ex officio, a member and the chairman. The principal duties assigned the board of supervisors are those of examining candidates for teachers, of examining the schools, in detail, twice in each year, and of conducting the annual examination of the pupils, in the different grades of schools, who are candidates for graduating diplomas.-Besides this board of supervisors, there is a general director of music, and another of drawing, each having several assistants. For the purposes of supervision, the city is divided into nine territorial divisions, each division comprising from four to seven territorial districts, and each district containing one grammar school and several primary schools. The master of the grammar school is the principal of the district, having the supervision of all the schools situated therein. There are no primary principals. Each division is under the charge of a committee composed of three or five members of the school board. There is also a standing committee in charge of the high schools.

School System.-Besides a normal school for girls, with a course for study and training for one year, to which pupils are admitted only on passing a satisfactory examination in the usual high-school studies, there are 8 high schools; namely, 3 large central schools,-the Latin and the English high school for boys, and the girls'

94

BOSTON COLLEGE

BOSTON UNIVERSITY

designed for students of the average proficiency of graduates of the best American conservatories of music; and is the only institution of its grade and kind in the United States. The regular courses of instruction extend through four years, and include (1) a course for vocalists; (2) a course for pianists; (3) a course for organists; (4) courses for orchestral performers. All these courses include the study of musical theory, also the history and esthetics of music.

BOSTON UNIVERSITY, at Boston, Mass., was founded by the munificence of Isaac Rich, who bequeathed for that purpose the greater part of his estate, amounting to nearly $2,000,000. The first, however, to suggest and advocate its establishment, was the late Lee Claflin, father of a recent governor of Massachusetts, whose views found an earnest supporter in Jacob Sleeper. Hence, these three persons are regarded as the founders of the institution, although Mr. Rich was its most munificent patron. Its charter was obtained from the legislature of Massachusetts in 1869. Its plan of organization is unique and comprehensive, including (1) Preparatory Departments; (2) Colleges; (3) Professional Schools; and (4) School of all Sciences (Schola Scholarum). The first of these are designed to fit students for the colleges; the second, to prepare them for the higher industries and arts of civilization, and for the study of the learned professions; the third, to qualify them theoretically and practically for professional life; while the fourth, including and supplementing the work of the professional schools, is designed to be a universal, or non-professional school of elective post-graduate studies, with special degrees, scholarships, and fellowships.

Of the colleges three have already been organized: (1) that of Liberal Arts, in 1873; (2) that of Music, in 1872; (3) that of Agriculture, supplied by the Massachusetts Agricultural College, at Amherst, associated with the university in 1875. This college has enjoyed a very high reputation since its organization in 1867; and by the arrangement made with the Boston University, matriculants in the latter, who desire instruction in agriculture, horticulture, and related branches, can receive it in the College, and on completing the prescribed course, can receive their degree from the University as well as from the College. The College of Liberal Arts answers to what is called in some American universities the Academic Department. Its courses of instruction qualify students for the degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor of philosophy, and bachelor of science. The College of Music is

A fundamental idea with those who organized the university was, that a university should exist not for one sex merely, but equally for the two; hence the most ultra principles of co-education are carried out. Young men and young women are welcomed to all the advantages of the institution on precisely the same conditions,-not merely to the bench of the pupil, but also to the chair of the professor. The trustees of the New England Female Medical College, said to be the oldest medical college for women in the world, by a special act of the legislature, in 1875, transferred all its properties and franchises to the Boston University, and was thus merged into its broader co-educative school of medicine.

Post-graduate students of this university, desiring to fit themselves for professorships of Greek, Latin, modern languages, philosophy, history, or art, enjoy special advantages. By virtue of an arrangement, effected in 1875, with the authorities of the National University at Athens, and those of the Royal University at Rome, any member of the School of all Sciences, duly recommended, may pursue, without expense for instruction, and for any number of years, select or regular courses of study in any department of said universities, enjoying all the rights and privileges of university citizenship; and upon returning, and passing a satisfactory examination in the work accomplished, can receive a degree from the Boston University. The faculties of these two foreign universities are thus co-operating faculties of the School of all Sciences, which is designed (1) for the benefit of bachelors of arts, philosophy, or science, of whatsoever college, who, with little or no direct reference to fitting themselves for a professional life, may desire to receive post-graduate instruction in this university; (2) to meet the wants of all graduates in theology, law, medicine, or other professional course, who may wish to supplement their professional culture by courses of study in related sciences, arts, and professions. This school is, thus, like the studium generale of the middle ages, the crowning and unifying department of the entire university organization.

Thus far, this comprehensive plan has been successfully carried out; and the institution has