saved by this, but it was killing the goose that laid the golden eggs. Trade was ruined; no one would buy who could help it, for no one knew the value of money. The cost of provisions rose manifold, and the distress of the poor was terrible, for wages never rise so fast as the cost of provisions. Naturally beggary and robbery increased apace. The last few years of Henry's reign were remarkable for several steps in the direction of the union of the British Isles. In 1536 Scotland. Battle of Wales Wales was completely united to England in matters and Ireland. of law, and sent thirty-seven members to the United Parliament. A committee of the Privy Council for Wales began to sit at Ludlow, as the Council of the North did for the northern counties. In 1542 Henry took the title of "King of Ireland;" his predecessors had merely styled themselves "Lord." Since Flodden there had been no regular war between England and Scotland, though the border lords had been constantly at strife, but in 1542 their quarrels resulted in regular war. James V., Henry's nephew, was not popular with his subjects, and his troops fled disgracefully at Solway Solway Moss. Moss. This broke James's heart, and he died in a few days, leaving his crown to his daughter Mary, an infant of a week old. Henry's great aim now was to marry this child to his son Edward. In 1543 this arrangement was concluded with the chiefs of the English party in Scotland. The French, and the French party in Scotland, headed by Cardinal Beaton, disliked the plan; so in 1544 Henry found himself at war with both France and Scotland. The English invaded Scotland under the command of Lord Hertford, brother of Jane Seymour, and of Lord Lisle, son of the Dudley executed at the beginning of the reign. Edinburgh and Leith were both partly burnt, but this barbarity served only to exasperate the Scots. Meanwhile Henry himself invaded France and took Boulogne. France and Scotland invaded. It now became apparent that Henry's life could not last long, and all parties began to intrigue for the chief power under the expected Intrigues of minority of Edward. If the lot fell to the Howards, there would probably be a reaction towards Rome; if to the new nobility, the reformation might be expected the nobles for the chief power. to go forward in the direction of the Lutheran movement. The new nobility won the day. A trumped-up charge against the Howards, that they quartered on their shield the arms of Edward the Confessor-which they had a right to do-aroused Henry's jealousy for the succession of his son. The Duke of Norfolk himself and his eldest son, the Earl of Surrey, an accomplished poet, but no favourer of reform, were condemned on a charge of treason, and the son was executed. The death of Henry, in 1547, saved Norfolk from the same fate. Henry's character. Henry VIII. was one of the most remarkable among the kings of England. His burly figure and strong will have taken firm hold upon the English imagination. Of all the sovereigns who reigned since the organization of Parliament, he was the most absolute. Parliament gave to his proclamations the force of law, and permitted him to leave the kingdom by will. He collected forced loans, set up and pulled down ministers as he chose, and rarely met with any resistance to his wishes, whether he asked Parliament to change some ancient institution, or demanded from the law-courts the condemnation of a wife, a nobleman, or a minister. Of his personal character the most opposite estimates have been formed. Some have represented him as a monster of wickedness, whose only motive was the gratification of his own passions; others, as a sovereign of great ability honestly desirous to do his best for his country. Between these extremes the truth must lie. There is no doubt that in many of his acts personal gratification was the chief incentive: to his ministers he was generous so long as they suited him, ruthless and vindictive when they were no longer necessary; in his family life he was cold, heartless, and unscrupulous; as a king he was arbitrary and capricious; but whether among all these faults there were the redeeming virtues of love for his country and desire to promote her true interests, it is not easy to say, since his character, as that of the king who set on foot the Reformation, has long been a subject of bitter contention between rival parties. CHAPTER III. EDWARD VI., 1547-1553 (6 years). Chief Characters of the Reign.-Lord Protector Somerset; Lord Seymour; HENRY VIII. left the crown by will to Edward, his son by Jane Seymour. The new king was only nine years old, so the government had to be carried on by others during his arrangement minority. To provide for this, Henry had named a Henry's for the minority of his son.. council of executors who were to act in Edward's name. From this council the old nobility were excluded; its members were all new men, but as they were equally divided between the old and new opinions, Henry hoped that they would take no decided step, so that when his son came of age he might be free to choose a course for himself. No member of the council was to have precedence over the rest—an arrangement which was further intended to secure a neutral policy during the minority. Hardly, however, was Henry dead when his carefully laid scheme was upset. The men who held the new opinions contrived to get a majority in the council, and the Earl of Hertford, uncle of the king, was appointed protector of the realm. The executors then declared that Henry had intended to raise many of them to higher rank in the peerage, and to give them grants out of the Church lands. Accordingly Hertford was made Duke of Somerset, his brother received the title of Lord Seymour, and Lord Lisle became Earl of Warwick. Failure of Henry's scheme. The protector was a remarkable man. His motives appear to Character of have been high, his impulses were generous, his the protector. courage was undaunted; but he was not a man of discretion, and consequently, in spite of all his ability, his rule Reforms the council. was a failure. In religious matters the policy of Henry VIII. was completely set aside. That king had avoided all changes in religion, and in naming his son's council had been careful to hold the balance between the old and the new religions. The majority of the council threw all their energy into pushing on religious changes. They sent a commission round carried out by the country to pull down all images in churches, and to deface the pictures. They abolished the mass, and ordered the service to be said in English. The commissioners carried out their instructions with great severity and amid much disorder, which disgusted reverent people; and the substitution of English for the chanted Latin services, and the destruction of the ornaments, brought home to the country people through their eyes and ears the change which was going on, and caused great excitement and discontent. Property of the Guilds taken. At the same time, on the plea that part of their money was spent on masses for the dead, the property of all the guilds was confiscated. The guilds were associations of the merchants and artisans of towns. Their money was spent partly in educating the children of the guildsmen, and training them as workmen, partly in supporting the old and sick, partly in masses for the dead, and partly on feasting and merrymaking. They had existed from very early times, and their spoliation was a great blow to the workmen, for it not only took away what was really their insurance money, but also deprived them of many social advantages. An exception was made in favour of the London guilds, which were too strong to be attacked. 1 1 Scotland. Proceedings in Scotland were equally reckless. Henry VIII. had tried hard to secure a marriage between Edward and Mary, Queen of Scots, and the Scottish Parliament had Invasion of given consent in 1543. It is doubtful whether under any circumstances the Scots would have agreed to the marriage; but Somerset, impatient of delay, gathered an army, passed the border at Berwick, and, supported by a fleet, marched along the coast. The English found the Scots posted in a very strong position near Musselburgh, their left resting on the Firth of Forth and defended in front by the river Esk. The Scots were much more numerous than the English, but, overrating their strength, they left their strong post, crossed the Esk near its mouth, and tried to cut the English off from their fleet and to hem them in between the hills and the sea. In consequence of this Battle of Pinkie, Sept., 1547. folly, Somerset was able to attack the Scots at an advantage, and, in spite of a slight success at first, they were thoroughly routed. The victory of Pinkie, as it was called, was, however, worse than useless; for the Scots gave up all thought of the marriage, and sent their little queen to be educated in France, where after a time she married the dauphin. First Prayerbook of Edward VI. In 1549 Parliament gave its authority to a new service-book, called the First Prayer-book of Edward VI. This was intended to be used in all churches, and, to enforce its use, an Act of Uniformity was passed. This Prayer-book was founded upon the old Missal and the Breviary, and the work of translation was mainly done by Archbishop Cranmer. It did not follow strictly the views either of the old Catholics, or of those Protestants who took their ideas from the teaching of the Reformers of Geneva. It was revised in 1552, 1559, 1603, and 1662; but its general character has remained the same. At its introduction the book of common prayer was by no means popular, but the beauty of its language and its devotional tone have long endeared it to the members of the Church of England. Conduct of Meanwhile the protector was troubled by the ambition of his younger brother, Lord Seymour. This man, who was altogether an inferior character to his brother, was not satisfied Lord Seymour. with his position, and had long been intriguing to improve it. He first married Katharine Parr, the widow of Henry VIII., and on her death aspired to the hand of the Lady Elizabeth. He also entered into relations with the pirates His execution. of the Channel, forged cannon, and collected money and munitions of war. He was arrested, attainted by Act of Parliament, and executed. Difficulty next arose in the western counties. There the new service-book had caused great excitement. Within a week of its being first read, the men of Devonshire and Cornwall were in arms demanding the restoration of the mass, the observance of the Six Articles, and all the time-honoured ceremonies of their fathers. For six weeks they Revolt of the western counties. |