proved that there must be abundant sources in the empire, notwithstanding what has been said of the general prohibitions against such mining on the part of the government. Ordinary copper, whence th. base metal coin of the country is made, comes from Yun-nân and Kuei-chow. A good deal of this is called Tze-lae, or natural," as being found in the beds of torrents. An abundance of malachite, or green copper ore, is obtained near the great lake in Hoo-kuâng, and is pulverized by the Chinese for green paint. The famous pe-tung, or white copper, which takes a polish not unlike silver, is said to come exclusively from Yun-nân. A considerable quantity of quicksilver is obtained in Kuei-chow; and there is a rich mine of utenague, or zinc, in Hoo-pě. VOL. II. Y CHAPTER XX. AGRICULTURE AND STATISTICS. Meteorology-Annual Averages-Typhoons-Discouragements to Husbandry Objects of Cultivation-Absence of Pasture-Allotment of Wastes-Manures-Irrigation-Rice-fields-Cheap Cultivation-Popu lation Encouragements to it-Obstacles to Emigration · Chinese Census-Inconsistent Accounts-How to be reconciled-Latest Census --Positive Checks-Land-tax-Revenues partly in kind-Salt-tax-Public Expenditure-Deficient Revenues -Existing Abuses. IN connection with the subject of this chapter, it may be as well to make some general remarks on the climate and meteorology of such parts of the country as have come under the observation of Europeans. A distinguishing feature, the unusual excess in which heat and cold prevail in some parts of the empire at opposite seasons, as well as the low average of the thermometer round the year, in comparison with the latitude, has been already noticed,* and explained as resulting, according to the investigations of Humboldt, from the position of China on the eastern side of a great continent. Although Peking is nearly a degree to the south of Naples-the latitude of the former place being 39° 54', of the latter 40° 50′-the mean temperature of Peking is only 54° of Fahrenheit, while that of Naples is 63°. But, as the thermometer at the Chinese capital sinks much lower during winter than at Naples, so in summer does it rise somewhat higher; the rivers are said to be frozen for three or four months together, from December to March; while during the last embassy in September, * Vol. i. p. 123. 1816, we experienced a heat of between ninety and one hundred degrees in the shade. Now it is well known that Naples and other countries in the extreme south of Europe are strangers to such a degree of longcontinued cold, and not often visited by such heats. Europe, observes Humboldt, may be considered altogether as the western part of a great continent, and therefore subject to all the influence which causes the western sides of continents to be warmer than the eastern; and at the same time more temperate, or less subject to excesses of both heat and cold, but principally the latter. The neighbourhood of Canton, and of other cities on the coast, to the sea, causes this tendency to be greatly modified; and indeed the climate of the larger portion of the empire seems to be, upon the whole, less subject to extremes than that of the capital. Taking it all the year round, and with the exception of some oppressive heats from June to September, it may be questioned whether a much better climate exists anywhere than that of Canton and Macao; the former place being as low as latitude 23° 8' north, and the latter about a degree to the south of it. The mean annual temperature of those places is what commonly prevails in the 30th parallel. It is surprising to contrast their meteorological averages with those of Calcutta, a city which stands very nearly in the same latitude. The following table was the result of observations made at Canton during a series of years: the average fall of rain was taken from a register kept for sixteen years, by Mr. Beale, at Macao: 48 30 14 2.425 July November.. 68 61 64.5 79 Annual Means 74-166-770-481-357-630-03 Total Rain, 70.625 Thus it appears that about 7010 of Fahrenheit is the average temperature of Canton and Macao, and that the months of October and April give nearly the mean heat of the year. The total fall of rain varies greatly from one year to another, and has sometimes been known to reach ninety inches and upwards. Vegetation is checked in the interval from November to February, not less by the dryness than by the coldness of the atmosphere; the three winter months being known sometimes to elapse with scarcely a drop of rain. The north-east monsoon, which commences about September, blows strongest during the above period, and begins to yield to the opposite monsoon in March. About that time the southerly winds come charged with the moisture which they have acquired in their passage over the sea through warm latitudes; and this moisture is suddenly condensed into thick fogs as it comes in contact with the land of China, which has been cooled down to a low temperature by the long-continued northerly winds. The latent heat given out, by the rapid distillation of this steam into fluid, produces the sudden advance of temperature which takes place about March; and its effect is immediately perceptible in the stimulus given to vegetation of all kinds, by this union of warmth with moisture. With the progressive increase of heat and evapora |