in operation. The Bavarian schools, long established, and reorganized in 1864, have for their chief design "to carry the sciences into industry, and to put industrial pursuits upon a footing corresponding to the progress of technical art and the competition of foreign industry." In the trade schools the studies embrace physics, drawing, modeling, chemistry, geometry, and mechanics. Practical labor in workshops and on the farm are part of the courses. The polytechnic is the apex of the Bavarian system. It embraces the usual scientific courses. Small fees are required; but remitted in deserving cases. At Passau, Munderberg, and at Berchtesgaden there are special training schools. The latter teaches wood-carving. At Augsburg is the Royal School of Machinery, which has a peculiar reputation for beautiful models of machinery, &c., made by the pupils. Many of the polytechnic schools and museums are supplied therefrom. Each pupil works in the shop, as well as receives appropriate theoretical instruc tion. The Nuremberg School of Art, as applied to trades, is famous all over Europe. Its course is thorough, and includes drawing, plain and from ornamental models, architecture, the antique, from life, plastic studies, embossing, sculpture, wood-carving, brass-founding, engraving, with classes in perspective and shadows, and in anatomy. It is affirmed that this school has contributed largely to national prosperity.

WÜRTEMBERG,

with. 1,700,000 inhabitants, is conceded to possess the best educated population in Europe. Besides a complete system of general schools, she has one technical university and 10 technical schools of the next grade, with 539 instructors and 5,148 pupils. There are 11 building and trade schools, giving a thorough theoretical and practical training in those occupations. They have 286 teachers and 6,457 students. There are 108 trade and industrial schools, having 8,254 scholars. There is an admirable polytechnic university at Stuttgardt, designed for the education of the higher class of professional men. The eminent English engineer, J. Scott Russell, in his work "Technical Education," gives a full account of the remarkable system prevailing in this little kingdom, and shows to what a height the intelligence and progress of the people, as well as the prosperity of the community, may attain under such admirable training. Speaking generally, Mr. Russell says: "In every country where technical education has taken root and had time to bear fruit, I also find unquestioned proofs of the rapidity with which increased intelligence and enlarged knowledge bring increase in employment and remuneration."

PRUSSIA-NORTH GERMANY.

The special technical system of Prussia, to which most of the smaller German states now conform, will bear brief examination. There are in Prussia alone 361 schools devoted to architecture, mining, agriculture, forestry, navigation, commerce, and other technical studies, general and special. Besides schools for weaving and the textile manufactures, there are 265 industrial schools whose studies and hours are directly arranged for the use of mechanics. They are classified as the central academies, approaching nearly to the polytechnic grade. The provincial and municipal improvement schools, and those for foreman, workman, and apprentice, all are fitted with models, tools, and laboratories. There are a large number of drawing schools, in which the classes are arranged to suit various trades needing such instruction. The agriculture schools are thorough, being divided into general and special. In the weaving schools the pupils receive practical instruction, and also study chemistry, as applied to the textile arts, &c.

Saxony has 76 technical schools, and a number for special instruction in various trades and occupations. The Dresden Polytechnic is one of the best in Europe. An excellent training school for women also exists, in which instruction is afforded in commercial and other branches. All the states of North Germany are being affiliated to the excellent system of Prussia.

SWITZERLAND

has a complete system of technical and special industrial schools honored by the best though youngest polytechnic institution in existence; such high praise is awarded it by competent English observers like Messrs. Samuelson, J. Scott Russell, and others, who have examined these institutions. The industrial and scientific university is located at Zurich. The buildings were erected at the expense of that canton, costing over $500,000. There are 7 schools or courses of study, architecture and construction, civil engineering, mechanics and machinery, chemistry, inorganic, applied and industrial agriculture, forestry, and rural economy, moral and political economy, and the fine arts. The federal government makes an annual appropriation of $40,000 towards its maintenance. There are over 70 regular professors, tutors, and assistants, and an average of 600 pupils. In addition to this federal polytechnic, there is an excel

lent technical institute at Lausanne, designed for the education, in the French cantons, of engineers, mechanicians, chemists and architects. It was started by an association, but receives a subsidy from the canton government, and also from the Lausanne commune. Small fees are charged, though provision is made for scholars who are unable to pay, but they must pass a competitive examination. There are 20 industrial schools for girls, in different cantons; a school for weavers, one for watchmakers, and another for wood-carving and drawing, besides 7 agricultural schools for boys. The Zurich cantonal schools are famous, and are held up as models to educators everywhere.

In consequence of the impetus given by these schools, eminent English authority say, it may be safely declared that "the Swiss, in their far valleys, are rapidly growing a dexterous and successful manufacturing people." More than half the students are from other countries. Besides the extensive corps of professors, there are excellent laboratories, workshops for the practical application and teaching of the several industrial arts, fine collections of models of all kinds, and an extensive and well-selected library. A good observatory, well fitted up, is also part of the polytechnic.

BELGIUM

has been active for the last twenty years in promoting industrial education. The result is marked in growing manufacturing importance. There is 1 college and school of agriculture; 1 of horticulture, forestry, and veterinary surgery. The simpler branches of these are taught in a large number of the primary schools. Of commercial schools there is 1 superior, and 12 secondary; 3 navigation schools, and 15 technical, with 2,293 pupils. Besides these there are 68 workshop schools, with 1,857 pupils. They have 1,428 looms in them, and have sent out, since 1845, 27,373 thoroughly trained weavers. The expenses are divided between the state, province, and communes. There is a royal academy of arts, mining, and manufacturing at Liege, and one of engineers at Ghent, besides art, as applied to industry, is taught in 60 academies and schools, having more than a thousand scholars.

ITALY

justifies her renewed unity by a renewal of industrial growth which is quite surprising. There were in 1868, 964 secondary technical schools, giving instructions in drawing, mechanics, industrial chemistry, &c., to 42,800 pupils. There were also 132 free technical schools, with 16,955 pupils; 72 assimilated with 6,495, and 55 royal or or principal technical schools having 5,868 scholars; besides, there are 3 superior and 84 institutes of technology, making a total as above stated. In the principal school at Milan there were 252 pupils. In addition to these designed mainly for the use of artisans and mechanics, at Naples there is 1 school of applied engineering and 2 of mining. Besides these, Italy has 29 art schools.

NORTHERN EUROPEAN.

The Scandinavian states also interest themselves in this special training. Denmark has a polytechnic school of excellent character, and schools of horticulture, agriculture, forestry, and veterinary surgery, with several technical schools, properly so-called. In Norway and Sweden there are academies of arts and design; also of mining and for elementary instruction in agriculture. Sweden maintains an excellent technological institute, and 4 elementary schools; 1 of ship-building, 9 of navigation, and 1 of mining.

Russia has several well organized polytechnic schools, embracing practical scientific studies, and also instruction in turning, carpenter's work, foundery, dyeing, engraving, and machine construction. Shops for all these pursuits are attached. The technological schools at St. Petersburg and Moscow are of the best character. There are 70 normal agricultural schools and 1,000 primary schools, in which practical farming, horticulture, and forestry are taught. There are 80 schools of mining, 1 central academy, and several provincial schools. Besides, there are 15 schools for instruction in naval architecture and steam engineering.

FRANCE

has paid great attention to this subject. Of government schools there were, under the French empire, (1868,) 2 national schools of agriculture; 9 courses on agricultural sciences in other colleges; 70 farm schools; 1 national agronomic institute; a number of schools for teaching practical draining, irrigation, horse, sheep, and cattle breeding; experimental sheep-folds and cow-houses; besides 3 schools of veterinary surgery, one being termed a college. There is a college and chamber of commerce; 1 school of roads and bridges; 3 of mining, with 19 professors. At Paris we find central schools of arts and manufactures; also the famous conservatory of arts and industry. There are 3 national schools of arts and manufactures located in the provinces. In

Savoy there is a school of watch-making. There is a thorough system of marine engineering and naval schools. The famous Ecole Polytechnique at Paris is too well known to need more than a reference as part of the system of scientific training pursued. At Arles the national mining school trains pupils for practical employment as superintendents, foremen, and other officers of government mines. The directors and inspectors are educated at the Ecole Polytechnique. The schools above referred to are designed to train managers rather than workmen. France also possesses a large number of local schools--departmental, municipal, and commune. In 1867 there were 250 special schools and public courses of technical lectures and classes in the various departments; 35 farm schools; 21 drawing; 12 of arts and trades; 5 of hydrography; 4 of the technical sciences; 4 of design for textile arts, laces, wall-papers, furniture, &c.; 4 of clock and watch-making; 3 of weaving; 2 for stokers; and a number of separate schools for instruction in agriculture, horticulture, silk culture, mining, practical chemistry, dyeing, &c. More than fifty courses of lectures, &c., were sustained in different manufacturing centers.

GREAT BRITAIN.

At the present time Great Britain is making marked progress in the way of industrial education. The "science and art department" of the report of the privy council on education for 1869 gives interesting data. The following table illustrates the rapid increase of scientific and art instruction, as applied to industry:

There were 780 special classes in these general schools, some having only one and others running up to ten. There is a very complete system of annual examinations carried out under the direction of the department. In the scientific examinations the inspectors are assisted by engineer officers of the army who may be stationed near. The government grants are graduated according to the number of and proficiency shown by the pupils; hence they act as incentives to the teachers. The latest data received (March 1869) show 514 schools, with 1,448 classes and about 21,000 scholars. The navigation schools, of which there are a number, are organized separately. The national geological survey now in progress, the Kensington Industrial and Art Museum, and other instrumentalities, are, by various means, made serviceable to the progress of these schools, through models furnished or works loaned, &c. All scientific investigations under government direction and the mining records office furnish material for the aid of the teachers. The Whitworth scholarships afford a notable illustration of the interest manifested. Mr. Whitworth has founded thirty scholarships, lasting each a term of years, of the annual value of $500, open to competitive examination, and designed for practical machinists, mechanics, and students who may aspire to a thorough scientific training. Ten of these scholarships have recently been awarded. Five of them were gained by working mechanics.

Besides this diffused system of technical instruction, there are a number of royal colleges and museums of mining, geology, chemistry, &c., to all of which are attached free courses of lectures. There is a national art training school, to which a number of national scholarships are attached; there are 771 students in all; 101 local schools are affiliated with this. In them instruction is given to about 20,000 students. Besides, there are nearly 200 night classes, having 4,468 students, and under the recent impetus given to these studies there were reported in England alone (1867) as receiving instructions in drawing, modeling, &c., in 583 schools, as many as 79,441 children.

INTEREST MANIFESTED BY THE WORKINGMEN.

With the zeal manifested by foreign governments, and the principal employing interests in Europe and here, it is equally as gratifying to note that felt by the workingmen themselves. The answers received by this Bureau give proof of this. The agitation on the relations of capital and labor affords striking evidence. The workingmen are fully cognizant of the fact that, to understand the complex and often subtile issues involved therein, they must acquire a wider intelligence and a more thorough education; hence, they place foremost among their demands on legislation the necessity of enforced attendance on schools; the shortening of the hours of labor for children, so they may attend thereon; and the establishment of technical and special schools for

their own benefit. The chief reason they urge for lessening the hours of adult labor is, whether it be justifiable or not, the need of more leisure for mental improvement. In Europe the subject of enlarged industrial education is a prominent topic among all the labor organizations, conventions, and congresses. The "International Workingmen's Association," a body which aims at uniting all trade and labor organizations in a federative unity, and which has become of considerable importance during the last two years, has given great prominence to this question. At their meeting in Brussels, 1868, one of the Belgian delegates argued that "an education in all the sciences, accompanied by a good religious training, is one of the best ways to make people prosperous and to entertain a respect for good order." The French delegates announced themselves as of the opinion "that the education required for the children of the working classes must include the natural sciences, and a technical course of training which will impart an elementary knowledge of the various manipulations of productive industry In Great Britain there is no question but that the unceasing demands of the industrial classes, as well as the violent character of the trades' disputes which have occurred there during the half-century past, have greatly aided in establishing the necessity for thorough education, by proving that its relations to production and consequent profit or loss are of the most intimate character. The undoubted success of her continental rivals, growing out of superior technical skill and training, has had a great deal to do with the demand of manufacturing England for a thorough education of labor; but so also has the growing restlessness of the workingmen, with their earnest desires for better conditions, had very much to do with the remarkable activity now displayed in Great Britain.

The outrages which have made such hideous notoriety for some English trade unions flourish chiefly among the more ignorant class of mechanics and laborers. It is the universal testimony of all who have studied the condition of labor in Great Britain, that, just in proportion that intelligence increases and education is made more accessible, the success of the great ameliorative efforts already inaugurated there are assured. Coöperative societies are the work of the more intelligent men. Councils of arbitration and courts of conciliation, now forming so extensively, are always successful in proportion to the educated intelligence that prevails. So thoroughly are liberalminded capitalists and employers in England impressed with the productive force and economic value of education, that, throughout the manufacturing districts, the traveler will see many fine school-buildings, libraries, mechanics' institutes, &c., attached to the great manufactories and carried on under the direction of these employers. The same is true wherever coöperation has succeeded.

THE FRENCH EXPOSITION AND ENGLISH ARTISANS.

During the Paris Exposition of 1867, the London Society of Arts defrayed the expenses of fifty-two English workmen, representing the principal trades and manufactures, to visit and report on the products and industry there exhibited. Their reports constitute one of the most remarkable of all the volumes devoted to the Exposition. Written, as a rule, with great clearness, simplicity, and directness, they testify alike to the intellectual capacity of the writers and the progress of industrial rivals. This volume teems with tributes to the admirable results achieved by the knowledge and skill acquired through, and directed by, technical and scientific education. Mr. Lucraft, chairmaker, is astonished at the skill displayed by very young men in the Paris workshops. He refers to their carving most delicate and tasteful designs, generally their own. He always found such workmen to have been pupils of the Paris art and technic schools. "The mere mechanical workmen," he says, "stand not the slightest chance with the workmen of cultivated taste." Messrs. Kendell & Caunt, hosiers, after what their report shows to have been careful examination, testify: "There can be no doubt that the superior education that is given to the working classes on the Continent gives them an advantage in some respects." Thomas Conuolly, stone mason, says: "It is impossible to estimate the loss entailed upon England through the neglect of art culture in every form." This is said after an enthusiastic tribute to the skill and taste displayed by his fellow-craftsmen in Paris. Mr. Randall, painter on chinaware, argues that the state ought to furnish art education to its citizens. "The Frenchman," he says, "has excellent schools to give him such culture." With considerable force Mr. Randall observes: "How few men know anything of the material in which they work. Yet such knowledge would sweeten daily toil, would open the treasure-house of thought, and enable a man to convert to new uses elements of force by which he is surrounded, and enrich the nation by adaptations and modes of economizing means now in use." Mr. Huth, one of the English jurors, says that the cotton production of European countries showed clearly" that there is not a machine working a machine, but that brains sit at the loom, and intelligence stands at the spinning wheel." Mr. McConnel!, engineer, declares that England must soon adopt a system of technical education, or be driven from the markets, not even holding her own as to cheapness. Mr. Winstanley argues for the organization of technic schools with workshops attached. Mr. Whiteing declares that in France" a due provision for art education, for instance,

is not a favor on the part of the administration, but one of the conditions of its continuance."

CREUZOT.

The value of industrial education is made most striking by the results seen in the town of Creuzot. All English testimony is unanimous as to the character of the work there manufactured. J. Scott Russell, Mr. Samuelson, M. P., and other eminent anthorities, declare that Mr. Schneider has, by a thorough system of technical training, placed a generation of educated workmen at his disposal. Mr. Russell affirms that it will take twelve years of unremitting effort for England to reach the same degree of skill as these educated workmen and scientific superintendents have attained. Nor is the mechanical skill the only or best results achieved. The frugality and temperance of Mr. Schneider's employés, several thousand in number, make Creuzot a model town in all respects. There are several thousand people in it, of whom seven-tenths are owners of their own dwellings; while the youth and adults who cannot read and write (though few in number) are nearly all strangers-persons not born or trained in the place. The same testimony is given with regard to the Krupp foundery and connected town in Prussia, where every foreman, superintendent, draughtsman, &c., is a graduate of the higher technical schools. Similar statements are made of Mulhouse, Guise, and other French ouvrier towns, in which the necessity of technical education has been most apparent and best supplied.

Mr. Russell declares that fifteen years is required for the theoretical and practical training of a skilled artisan-meaning of course in workshop as well as school. Dr. Lyon Playfair, recognized as among the foremost authorities on this question, in a report to the English government declares that the one cause tending to make continental manufactures superior to English is that Austria, Prussia, France, Belgium, and Switzerland "possess good systems of industrial education for the masters and managers of manufactories and workshops, and England possesses none." Mr. Samuelson, M. P., the leading iron ship-builder on the Thames, says, after giving the whole subject a thorough examination: "I do not think it possible to estimate precisely what has been the influence of continental education on continental manufactures. That the rapid progress of many trades abroad has been greatly facilitated by the superior technical knowledge of the directors of work everywhere, and by the comparatively advanced elementary instruction of the workers in some departments of industry, there can be no doubt."

INFLUENCE OF ART INSTRUCTION.

At a congress of educators and others, held in Brussels, September, 1868, to consider the best system for popular art instruction, the testimony to its value, as adding to the productiveness of labor was quite unequivocal. Janssen Smit, director of one of the best industrial and art schools, said: "I do not hesitate to say that, by the experiences and education of the industrial workshop, (referring to the workshop schools so common in Belgium and France, as well as other European countries,) more than by the teaching of some special useful art, Paris has monoplized the trade of the world in almost all articles whose value lies in their artistic taste. Art instruction," M. Smit, continued, "is a powerful means of popular education; it exercises on the workingman an eminently civilizing influence; it polishes his manners and gives him calm and serious tastes." Again, "Art in itself will exercise an immense influence on the aptitude and the success of the workingman." M. Vischer, who presided at the congress, declared the question to be "by what means we can place in the hands of all men, and particularly the workingman and mechanic, a new instrument to increase their personal capital-the power of usefulness and enjoyment." Evidence of this character might be indefinitely multiplied. Each but cumulates the evidence proving that education-not the mere elements, but that higher culture which throws open the arcana and enables the student to apply his knowledge-tends not to the creation of wealth alone, but to the improvement of man in all that is of individual benefit and constitutes his value to the community at large. In one of the replies sent in response to the questions addressed by the Bureau on this subject of the relations of education and labor, there is a sentence which, strongly epitomizing as it does the labor view, is here quoted: "Aye, education, not only of the alphabet and the multiplication table, but a general popular education in the full meaning of the word, is the panacea for all the social evils and injustices, because it renders men less submissive to evils of human creation which may be remedied by human efforts." A volume might be expanded from that and fail to express it more pertinently.

THE FACTORY SYSTEM AND ITS DANGERS.

It is rather surprising to find that, in Massachusetts even, under the high pressure of production and profit which the development of her manufacturing system has aroused,