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in it he intended it should, and so could, not but be perfect, could not but be adequate, it being referred to no other archetype, which it was supposed to represent.

§. 45. These words, kinneah and niouph, by degrees grew into common use; and then the case was somewhat altered. Adam's children had the same faculties, and thereby the same power that he had, to make what complex ideas of mixed modes they pleased in their own minds; to abstract them, and make what sounds they pleased, the signs of them; but the use of names being to make our ideas within us known to others, that cannot be done, but when the same sign stands for the same idea in two, who would communicate their thoughts, and discourse together. Those, therefore, of Adam's children that found these two words, kinneah and niouph, in familiar use, could not take them for insignificant sounds; but must needs conclude, they stood for something, for certain ideas, abstract ideas, they being general names, which abstract ideas were the essences of the species distinguished by those names. If, therefore, they would use these words as names of species already established and agreed on, they were obliged to conform the ideas in their minds, signified by these names, to the ideas that they stood for in other men's minds, as to their patterns and archetypes; and then, indeed, their ideas of these complex modes were liable to be inadequate, as being very apt (especially those that consisted of combinations of many simple ideas) not to be exactly conformable to the ideas in other men's minds, using the same names; though for this, there be usually a remedy at hand, which is, to ask the meaning of any word we understand not, of him that uses it; it being as impossible to know certainly what the words jealousy and adultery (which I think answer and 8) stand for in another man's mind, with whom I would discourse about them; as it was impossible, in the beginning of language, to know what kinneah and niouph stood for in another man's mind, without explication, they being voluntary signs in every one.

קנאה

§. 46. Instance of substances in zahab.-Let us now also consider, after the same manner, the names of substances, in their first application. One of Adam's children, roving in the mountains, lights on a glittering substance, which pleases his eye; home he carries it to Adam, who, upon consideration of it, finds it to be hard, to have a bright yellow colour, and an exceeding great weight. These, perhaps, at first, are all the qualities he takes notice of in it, and abstracting this complex idea, consisting of a substance having that peculiar bright yellowness, and a weight very great in proportion to its bulk,

he gives it the name zahab, to denominate and mark all substances that have these sensible qualities in them. It is evident now, that in this case, Adam acts quite differently from what he did before, in forming those ideas of mixed modes, to which he gave the names kinneah and niouph. For there he puts ideas together, only by his own imagination, not taken from the existence of any thing; and to them he gave names to denominate all things that should happen to agree to those his abstract ideas, without considering whether any such thing did exist, or no; the standard there, was of his own making. But in the forming his idea of this new substance, he takes the quite contrary course; here he has a standard made by nature; and therefore being to represent that to himself, by the idea he has of it, even when it is absent, he puts in no simple idea into his complex one, but what he has the perception of from the thing itself. He takes care that his idea be conformable to this archetype, and intends the name should stand for an idea so conformable.

§. 47. This piece of matter, thus denominated zahab by Adam, being quite different from any he had seen before, nobody, I think, will deny to be a distinct species, and to have its peculiar essence: and that the name zahab has the mark of the species, and a name belonging to all things partaking in that essence. But here, it is plain, the essence Adam made the name zahab stand for, was nothing but a body hard, shining, yellow, and very heavy. But the inquisitive mind of man, not content with the knowledge of these, as I may say, superficial qualities, puts Adam on farther examination of this matter. He therefore knocks and beats it with flints, to see what was discoverable in the inside; he finds it yield to blows, but not easily separate into pieces; he finds it will bend without breaking. Is not now ductility to be added to his former idea, and made part of the essence of the species that name zahab stands for? Farther trials discover fusibility and fixedness. Are not they also, by the same reason that any of the others were, to be put into the complex idea signified by the name zahab? If not, what reason will there be shown more for the one than the other? If these must, then all the other properties, which any farther trials shall discover in this matter, ought, by the same reason, to make a part of the ingredients of the complex idea which the name zahab stands for, and so be the essence of the species marked by that name. Which properties, because they are endless, it is plain, that the idea made after this fashion by this archetype, will be always inadequate.

§. 48. Their ideas imperfect, and therefore various.-But this

is not all; it would also follow, that the names of substances would not only have (as in truth they have), but would also be supposed to have, different significations, us used by different men, which would very much cumber the use of language. For if every distinct quality, that were discovered in any matter by any one, were supposed to make a necessary part of the complex idea signified by the common name given it, it must follow, that men must suppose the same word to signify different things in different men since they cannot doubt but different men may have discovered several qualities in substances of the same denomination, which others know nothing of.

§. 49. Therefore to fix their species, a real essence is supposed. To avoid this, therefore, they have supposed a real essence belonging to every species from which these properties all flow, and would have their name of the species stand for that. But they not having any idea of that real essence, in substances, and their words signifying nothing but the ideas they have, that which is done by this attempt, is only to put the name or sound in the place and stead of the thing having that real essence, without knowing what the real essence is; and this is that which men do, when they speak of species of things, as supposing them made by nature, and distinguished by real

essences.

§. 50. Which supposition is of no use.-For let us consider when we affirm, that all gold is fixed, either it means that fixedness is a part of the definition, part of the nominal essence, the word gold stands for; and so this affirmation, all gold is fixed, contains nothing but the signification of the term gold. Or else it means, that fixedness not being a part of the definition of the word gold, is a property of that substance itself; in which case, it is plain, that the word gold stands in the place of a substance, having the real essence of a species of things, made by nature. In which way of substitution, it has so confused and uncertain a signification, that though this proposition, gold is fixed, be in that sense an affirmation of something real; yet it is a truth will always fail us in its particular application, and so is of no real use nor certainty. For let it be ever so true, that all gold, i. e. all that has the real essence of gold, is fixed, what serves this for, whilst we know not in this sense, what is, or is not, gold; for if we know not the real essence of gold, it is impossible we should know what parcel of matter has that essence, and so whether it be true gold or no.

§. 51. Conclusion.-To conclude; what liberty Adam had at first to make any complex idea of mixed modes, by no other patterns but his own thoughts, the same have all men ever

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since had. And the same necessity of conforming his ideas of substances to things without him, as to archetypes made by nature, that Adam was under, if he would not wilfully impose upon himself, the same are all men ever since under too. The same liberty, also, that Adam had of affixing any new name to any idea, the same has any one still (especially the beginners of languages, if we can imagine any such), but only with this difference, that in places where men in society have already established a language amongst them, the significations of words are very warily and sparingly to be altered. Because men being furnished already with names for their ideas, and common use having appropriated known names to certain ideas, an affected misapplication of them cannot but be very ridiculous. He that hath new notions, will, perhaps, venture sometimes on the coining of new terms to express them; but men think it a boldness, and it is uncertain, whether common use will ever make them pass for current. But in communication with others, it is necessary that we conform the ideas we make the vulgar words of any language stand for to their known proper significations (which I have explained at large already), or else to make known that new signification we apply them to.

CHAPTER VII.

OF PARTICLES.

§. 1. Particles connect parts or whole sentences together.Besides words, which are names of ideas in the mind, there are a great many others that are made use of, to signify the connexion that the mind gives to ideas or propositions one with another. The mind, in communicating its thought to others, does not only need signs of the ideas it has then before it, but others also, to show or intimate some particular action of its own, at that time, relating to those ideas. This it does several ways; as, is, and is not, are the general marks of the mind affirming or denying. But besides affirmation, or negation, without which there is in words no truth or falsehood, the mind does, in declaring its sentiments to others, connect not only the parts of propositions, but whole sentences one to another, with their several relations and dependencies, to make a coherent discourse.

§. 2. In them consists the art of well speaking.-The words, whereby it signifies what connexion it gives to the several affirmations and negations that it unites in one continued reasoning or narration, are generally called particles; and it is the right

use of these, that more particularly consists the clearness and beauty of a good style. To think well, it is not enough that a man has ideas clear and distinct in his thoughts, nor that he observes the agreement, or disagreement, of some of them: but he must think in train, and observe the dependence of his thoughts and reasonings upon one another; and to express well such methodical and rational thoughts, he must have words to show what connexion, restriction, distinction, opposition, emphasis, &c., he gives to each respective part of his discourse. To mistake in any of these, is to puzzle, instead of informing, his hearer; and therefore it is, that those words, which are not truly, by themselves, the names of any ideas, are of such constant and indispensable use in language, and do much contribute to men's well expressing themselves.

§. 3. They show what relation the mind gives to its own thoughts. This part of grammar has been, perhaps, as much neglected, as some others over diligently cultivated. It is easy for men to write one after another, of cases and genders, moods and tenses, gerunds and supines: in these, and the like, there has been great diligence used; and particles themselves, in some languages, have been, with great show of exactness, ranked into their several orders. But though prepositions and conjunctions, &c., are names well known in grammar, and the particles contained under them carefully ranked into their distinct subdivisions; yet he who would show the right use of particles, and what significancy and force they have, must take a little more pains, enter into his own thoughts, and observe nicely the several postures of his mind in discoursing.

§. 4. Neither is it enough, for the explaining of these words, to render them, as is usual in dictionaries, by words of another tongue which come nearest to their signification; for what is meant by them, is commonly as hard to be understood in one, as another, language. They are all marks of some action or intimation of the mind; and, therefore, to understand them rightly, the several views, postures, stands, turns, limitations, and exceptions, and several other thoughts of the mind, for which we have either none, or very deficient, names, are diligently to be studied. Of these, there are a great variety, much exceeding the number of particles that most languages have to express them by; and, therefore, it is not to be wondered, that most of these particles have divers, and sometimes almost opposite, significations. In the Hebrew tongue, there is a particle consisting but of one single letter, of which there are reckoned up, as I remember, seventy, I am sure above fifty, several significations.

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