Revolution, in which the college suffered more severely than any other, with the exception perhaps of William and Mary, its poverty was so distressing and the resources of the country were so depleted by war that Dr. Witherspoon, the president and a native of Scotland, was sent to England to obtain funds. But the country which had given generously to Princeton in 1753 and even more generously to other colleges in 1762 and 1766 could not in 1783 be persuaded to give £100 to the cause of American education. Dr. Witherspoon's mission was an utter failure. Its proceeds were not sufficient to pay its expenses.

Since the United States became a nation the attempts to raise endowments in England have been few, and their success is much inferior to that obtained previous to the war which made her independent of the mother country. The most significant of these efforts is the mission of Bishop Chase, of Ohio. In 1823 he went to England bearing among other commendations a letter from Henry Clay to the Admiral, Lord Gambier. The next year he collected in England and Scotland about 5,000 guineas for Kenyon College, which formed its financial foundation. The amount of the gifts varied from £1 to £400. In his undertaking he met much opposition, but it proceeded rather from this than the other side of the Atlantic.

The Phi Beta Kappa address of Ralph Waldo Emerson, given at Cambridge in 1837, on the American scholar, has been called the declaration of our intellectual independence. But the declaration of the 4th of July, 1776, also contained intimations of our intellectual and academic freedom from Great Britain. So fundamental and vital was the separation that the suggestion was made to establish a new language in the place of the English. Hebrew was proposed as a substitute. Acts which made the colonies independent in political and civil affairs also served to make them independent in affairs of education. In this condition the United States turned for aid and comfort to the traditional enemy of England-France. French officers, commanding French armies and French fleets, cooperated with the American forces. Frenchmen such as Chastellux, Brissot, and Bayard, gentlemen of scholarship and culture, visited the country for scientific, literary, or political purposes. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, incorporated in Massachusetts in 1780, proposed to give itself the air of France, rather than of England, and to follow the Royal Academy rather than the Royal Society." President John Adams said that it was the talks which he had with scholars in Paris that gave him the idea of the formation of the academy.

The French influence exerted upon the general educational condition is indicated in various ways. In 1784 the corporation of Harvard College received an offer from the King of France to furnish a botanic garden, which the college desired to establish, with every species of seeds and plants which might be required from his royal garden at his own expense. At the same time, too, an attempt was made to found a French Academy of Arts and Sciences in Richmond. Its projector, Quesnay, was the grandson of the famous French philosopher and economist, Quesnay, who was court physician to Louis XV. He came to this country to aid in the Revolution, serving as a captain in Virginia. After giving up the military life because of ill health, he traveled through the country and in these travels conceived the idea of introducing French arts and culture, believing, also, that he could multiply the relations uniting France and this country. The institution was to be national, having branches at Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, and also international, being affiliated with similar institutions in Europe. It was designed to give what we might now call graduate instruction. Its curriculum was sufficiently broad, including foreign languages, mathematics, architecture (civil and military), painting, sculpture, engraving, experimental physics, astronomy, geography, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, anatomy (human) and veterinary), and natural history. This endeavor interested many people both

in America and France. No less than 60,000 francs were raised toward the endowment. Among the subscribers to the fund were about a hundred of the representatives of the best culture of Virginia. On July 1, 1786, the corner stone of the building was laid at Richmond and one professor was appointed. He was Dr. Jean Rouelle. But in 1786 France was in no condition to enter into schemes of education or other propagandism outside of her own territory, and the formal endeavor presently came to an end.

On the tombstone of Thomas Jefferson, at Monticello, are three inscriptions indicating that he was the author of the Declaration of Independence, of the fundamental law of Virginia guaranteeing religious freedom, and that he also was the founder of the University of Virginia. In his endeavor for the higher education, a work which Mr. Jefferson regarded of signal importance, he was largely influenced by the methods, ideas, and purposes of France. While he was minister at Paris he made investigations of the French systems of education. The University of Virginia, established in 1825, embodied the French model. He regarded Edinburgh and Geneva as the best foreign universities. At one time it was suggested, by reason of political dissatisfaction, that the leading professors of the University of Geneva should as a body transfer themselves to Virginia. The project, of course, like that of Quesnay, was not feasible, but in the final organization of the university at Charlottesville the French method of separate schools prevailed. Religious freedom, which characterized and still characterizes the university, represents the French rather than the English tradition.

The final manifestation of French influence on the higher education of America is seen in the organization of education in the Territory of Michigan. It is specially represented in an endeavor to found what was for a time known by the dreadful name of catholepistemiad. The project included the establishment of thirteen professorships, also known by outlandish terms. No religious condition was to obtain in the election of members to the board of trustees. This scheme, too, begun in 1817, like the scheme of Quesnay, came to an end in the form in which it was projected; but it was the germ whence sprang twenty years later the University of Michigan.

While the discussions between Jefferson and his friends were going on in relation to the establishment of a university in Virginia the influence of German scholarship and teaching was beginning to be felt. For a hundred years this influence has been enlarging and deepening. Although Benjamin Franklin was a visitor at Göttingen in 1776, and although at the same university, in 1799, a Pennsylvanian, Benjamin Smith Barton, took his degree of doctor of philosophy, it was not until the first decades of the nineteenth century that the influence of German upon American education became evident. In the second decade of the century begins the long list of Americans, still enlarging, who have been students at the German universities for a longer or shorter time. Among the pioneers are Edward Everett, George Ticknor, George Bancroft, Henry W. Longfellow, and J. Lothrop Motley. Motley was a student at Göttingen in 1833. Following him at Göttingen in the next score of years were J. E. Cabot, the biographer of Emerson; Theodore Dwight Woolsey, president of Yale: Benjamin Apthorp Gould, the astronomer; George M. Lane, the eminent Latinist; Francis J. Child, the great English scholar; Henry Boynton Smith, the theologian, Horatio B. Hackett, John L. Lincoln, and Roswell D. Hitchcock. The larger number of Americans who went to Germany as students in the first half of the nineteenth century went to Göttingen. The reason for the choice is not absolutely evident, but aside from the attractiveness of the university itself it is probable that Göttingen, being situated in Hanover and Hanover belonging to the English Crown, represented a less foreign country than did Prussia or Saxony. Previous to the year 1850 in the universities of Göttingen, of Berlin, and of Leipzig about 150 Americans

were enrolled. Throughout the last half of the nineteenth century the number of Americans studying in German universities steadily increased. At the close of the period the number had become about 200 each year. At the present time it shows no sign of diminution.

The causes which prompted students to go to Germany in the earlier time are manifold. One cause lay in German literature. Coleridge and Carlyle had become moving forces in the English and American mind, and behind them was the influence of German literature. The late Prof. Frederick Henry Hedge was from 1818 to 1823 a student in several German gymnasia. He became a pioneer of German poetry and metaphysics in the New World. Horace Mann's Seventh Annual Report, made in 1843, discussing Prussian and Saxon schools, was a moving force..

· The presence, too, of Germans of noble character and of large scholarship in the United States contributed the same results. Among them were such scholars as Dr. Charles Follen and Dr. Francis Lieber. Follen became the first teacher of German at Harvard; and Lieber, in two important institutions-one in the South and one in the North-for a long period illustrated in his writing and character the breadth and profundity of learning. The expulsion of German scholars in the earlier time from their native country for political reasons has resulted in the enlargement and enrichment of American education and life. But the chief cause of the attractiveness of German universities to American students lies in the spirit of and facilities for scholarship. In Prussia and Saxony modern scholarship has come to its highest worth.

These periods, which may in a general way be interpreted in their prevailing foreign influence as English, French, German, are also, in respect to interior conditions, to be interpreted as ecclesiastical, private, and public. As the colleges founded in the early period were English, and as these English colleges were quite entirely under the control of the church, the ecclesiastical influence predominated. Following this period a period which may be interpreted as private or personal became dominant. Colleges were founded by individuals as individnals, not as members of a church. Such colleges are Williams, Bowdoin, and Amherst. This second period was succeeded by a period which may be called public or national, in which the college or university was established as the crown of the public educational system of the State. The State university embodies the essence of this period and movement. It is not to be understood that these periods are in point of time distinct. The ecclesiastical period projects itself down to the present day. Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian colleges are founded in the current year as they were in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The two most conspicuous illustrations of the private or personal college belong to the last decades; the University of Chicago and the Leland Stanford Junior University are emphatically personal foundations. Although the period of the establishment of the State university belongs to recent decades, yet its beginning dates back to the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The higher education in America represents the contemporaneousness of these three movements. It also represents not only their contemporaneousness, but also their cooperation. The movement of the church for the foundation of colleges has been aided by the wisdom and beneficence of individuals. Denominational colleges have been aided also by grants from the public funds, as Amherst and Williams. Foundations are frequently made by individuals which have a distinct ecclesiastical relationship. The University of Chicago represents an offering made by an eminent member of the Baptist Church for the benefit of mankind. The State universities, too, have not been without aid and comfort offered by individuals. The University of Minnesota received for many a year the gift not simply of vigilant wisdom, but also of large benefactions from Governor John S. Pillsbury. The University of Michi

gan has often been enriched by the gifts of individuals. The higher education in America is distinguished at once by diversity of origin and by the coworking of diverse forces for its enlargement. But in general, the movements which I have denominated ecclesiastical, private, and public represent the tendency.

While these three forces have been at work promoting the higher education, either successively or simultaneously, behind them and in them has been the State itself. The relationship between the State and the university may or may not be vital, but it has always been at least formal, and it has usually been more vital than some interpretations represent.

Harvard College came into existence by the vote of the general court of Massachusetts Bay. Its continued existence has been, through constitutional provision and law, guaranteed by the civil authorities. The first donation which the college received was made by the general court, and for its support an annual tax was levied. For the larger part of its history the college has had a formal relation with the Commonwealth. It was not until 1865 that this relation ceased. What came to be known as land grants in the last half century were an early form of donation to the college in Cambridge. In 1652. the legislature gave 800 acres of land; in 1653, 2,000 acres; in 1658, 2,100, and in 1683, 1,000 acres to the college. Harvard College throughout each century of its existence has received donations from the Commonwealth, as well as two so unlike institutions as Amherst and the Institute of Technology.

A more distinct evidence of the State serving as a governor and benefactor of the higher education appears in the South in the last decades of the eighteenth century. The constitution of North Carolina, adopted in 1776, required the establishment of one or more universities. South Carolina, soon after the close of the Revolution, on one day passed acts to establish three colleges. To South Carolina College the State had up to 1820 given more than $200,000. Georgia, founded by Oglethorpe, an Oxford graduate, as were some of his fellow-colonists, passed an act in 1775 by which it was proposed to give 20,000 acres of land in each county for the endowment of a college or seminary of learning. In 1801 the University of Georgia was planted in the spot where it has since, with varying fortunes and misfortunes of war and of peace, served well the interests of its Commonwealth. In the year 1785 the first legislature of the State of Franklin, now Tennessee, made provision for a university in an act for the promotion of learning.

As the Revolutionary war sprang out of the impulse for a united and independent national life, so the results of this war served to deepen, broaden, and fertilize this great desire. The national spirit became more dominant in educational and religious as well as in civil and political affairs. The period following the war of independence was a period of great intellectual activity. This activity manifested itself in many forms. One form proved to be denominational zeal. This zeal was both the cause and the result of the greater activity of the clergy. Each church appreciated the need of training a clergy of its own, and therefore each church founded colleges. In Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts, Tennessee, New York, Vermont, Maine, and Kentucky such colleges were founded in the last two decades of the eighteenth or the first two of the nineteenth century. Yet, while denominational enthusiasm was establishing denominational colleges the national spirit was growing.

The project for a national university seems to belong to as early a date as 1775. It is said that Washington, while his troops were occupying the dormitories of Harvard College, intimated that the hope of a national university, which some of his associates entertained, would be realized. The thought of such a seminary of learning seems to have been held constantly by Washington. In what might be called his first annual message to Congress, in 1790, he intimated that the institution of a national university was well worthy of the deliberation of the

legislature as a means for securing the highest purpose of government. Five years later he referred to the matter in a public letter, and in his last will and testament occurs a bequest for the endowment of the proposed institution. The early Presidents also mentioned the subject in formal addresses or papers. In 1796 a memorial was presented to Congress asking for the foundation of a university. Up to the year 1816 the question of a national university appears to have been the subject of frequent discussion.

It is evident that the purpose of aiding the higher education was held by not a few of the leaders of the new Commonwealth. The presence of this sentiment helps to explain the readiness of the General Government to grant aid to the individual States for the purpose of the establishment of institutions of the higher education within their own borders. The general currency and force of a desire to receive aid from the General Government prepared the way for the creation of endowments both through State grants and Congressional appropriations.

In the first years following the close of the Revolutionary war, while the churches were engaged in the administration of colleges already founded, or in the establishment of new colleges, no small share of the body of the people came to realize that their needs were not fully met by institutions already existing. Too many of these colleges were the colleges of a sect or a faction. They were not colleges of and for the whole body of the people. As this feeling deepened and broadened it became apparent that the need could be met in one or both of two ways. One method was the method of supervision of and cooperation with existing institutions. Through such a relationship it was thought that these institutions might become more closely adjusted to the needs of the Commonwealth. The second method of the people ministering to themselves through the higher education was the establishment of new institutions to be administered directly by the people. In various forms the adjustment of the old institutions to modern society was attempted, but the results of the attempts were vain. The "Dartmouth College case" illustrates such an attempt. It was only after the lapse of half a century and more that the adjustment of the ecclesiastical or private institutions to modern needs was accomplished. Therefore, throughout the nineteenth century endeavors many and earnest were made to found new institutions under the full and direct control of the Commonwealth. Out of this desire to promote a most vital type of the higher education sprang such grants of land as followed the passing of the great ordinance of 1787 and the issuing of the Symmes patent in 1794. In the first half of the last century grants were made for the establishment of institutions of the higher education in 22 States and Territories; and through 32 acts of Congress, passed largely in the same period, somewhat over a million acres were granted for the endowment of universities. By means of what is known as the Morrill Act of 1862 and acts amendatory of it about 10,000,000 acres have been granted to no less than 45 States in aid of the higher education. This vast amount of public domain, though allotted primarily for the endowment of agricultural and mechanical colleges, has frequently become a part of the endowment of the university of each of the States concerned. The value of these vast donations it is now impossible to estimate, but it is probable that the States have realized from them no less than $250,000,000.a

a The authority given for this estimate is the late Prof. B. A. Hinsdale, in his article on “American educational history" in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1: 92-93, page 1285. It includes all the common school lands (some 68,000,000 acres), as well as college and university lands (agricultural and mechanical 9,600,000 acres, seminaries or universities 1,400,000), making a total of 79,000,000 acres, which he states would be worth $99,000,000 at the minimum price of $1.25 per acre; "but it may be safely estimated that these educational grant lands have realized to the States more than $250,000,000." By other good authority it is considered doubtful if the average price received for these lands, for all the States, amounts to more than the minimum, viz, $1.25 per acre, which yields $99,000,000, as above stated.