school age (99.78 per cent) were taught in the public schools, with an average of only 47 pupils per teacher.

The conditions of the public schools in Prussia have steadily improved within the last two decades. While in 1866 only about 54 per cent of all children could be taught under normal conditions, the percentage had risen to 77.85 in 1901. As a matter of course the cost of maintenance has increased. In 1886 it amounted to 186,000,000 marks in round numbers, in 1901 to 270,000,000 marks.. The average per pupil a year was 48 marks in 1901. Below this average was the province of Posen (35 marks), western Prussia (38 marks), eastern Prussia (39 marks), Silesia (39 marks), Pomerania (43 marks), Province of Saxony (44 marks), and Westphalia (47 marks).

Considerably above the average were Hohenzollern (59 marks) and Hesse-Nassau (60 marks), while the city of Berlin leads all Germany with 95 marks per pupil. Richard GuenTHER,

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN, October 3, 1903.

Consul-General.

Discrimination against foreign students in Germany.-The Saxon minister of education and ecclesiastical affairs has recently issued an order changing the statutes of the Royal Polytechnical School at Dresden respecting foreign students, to take immediate effect. Henceforth all students who are not German subjects must pay, in addition to the regular tuition, other fees, the amount of which will depend upon the number of hours and courses taken by a student. The polytechnicum at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, has changed its curriculum regarding foreigners, and last year the University of Leipzig changed its fee schedule so as to make it almost twice as expensive for a foreigner to graduate as it is for a German subject.—Brainard H. Warner, jr., consul, Leipzig, Germany, October 7, 1903.

THE BOOK TRADE IN GERMANY.

The book trade in Germany has acquired a peculiar and complicated character, which is the result of long years of gradual development. The trade shows a tendency toward decentralization. In England and France the book trade has become more or less centered in London and Paris, but in Germany the university towns and capitals of the different States have succeeded in keeping a grip upon the trade, which has contributed much toward maintaining the intellectual ascendency of such cities as Leipzig, Berlin, Stuttgart, and Munich.

The official statistics for 1903, published in Offizielles Adressbuch des Deutschen Buchhandels, place the number of book publishers in Germany at 2,000, exclusive of those who issue works on art and music. There are also about the same number of retail dealers and printing establishments which publish certain books as a side line to their regular business. The publisher may be looked upon as the actual originator of the book trade, inasmuch as he buys the manuscript from the author, undertakes to have it printed, and then places it before the public. The business relations between a publisher and an author are always regulated by a definite contract. It often occurs that a publisher imparts to an author his ideas regarding certain works which he desires to have written, and it is this class of books which are usually placed upon the market on the subscription plan. The number of new subjects which find their way into print amount to about 25,000 per annum. In 1898 there were 158 commission book agents in Leipzig, 42 in Berlin, and 15 in Stuttgart, who waited upon 9,500 retail book dealers. In Germany every man who is connected with the book trade must have a commission agent in one of the three above-named

cities, whom he must publicly acknowledge as his representative. The following table shows the number of book publishers and retail dealers in Germany:

During the six years from 1896 to 1901, the number of failures in the book trade in Germany, according to the figures published in Der Deutsche Buchhandel und die Wissenschaft (von Karl Bücher), 1903, was as follows:

The book industry in Germany at present, like many other branches of manufacture and trade, is suffering from overproduction. The vast majority of the 25,000 new books catalogued during 1902 proved to be a drug on the market. This state of affairs naturally makes its influence felt in the bookstores all over the country. Another hardship which the retail dealers are laboring under at present is the difficulty in securing able assistants as clerks and bookkeepers. The number of young men who find their way into the bookshops as apprentices is becoming less every year. If their training has been such as to give them a good literary knowledge of the book trade in general, they prefer to find employment in the publishing houses, where they enjoy shorter hours and better wages. A ruinous rival of the retail book dealer in Germany is the department store, which has been established in all the large cities of the Empire. These large establishments use books as advertising matter, and often sell them at a price below that actually paid to the commission agent. In small towns many bookbinders-sell books of every description as a side line, which increases the difficulties of the retail dealer. The opinion prevails in well-informed circles that the retail bookstore in Germany, exclusively as such, has seen its best days.

EIBENSTOCK, GERMANY, September 16, 1903.

ERNEST L. HARRIS,
Commercial Agent.

COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.

It is a remarkable fact, acknowledged even by Englishmen, that in the country whose commerce, so to speak, controls the world commercial education up until a few years ago was neglected. In 1901 the foreign commerce of the United Kingdom amounted to $2,540,264,000 imports and $1,692,880,000 exports. The imports, therefore, were $847,384,000 in excess of the exports. To these figures must be added the Kingdom's great internal commerce. No exact statistics are available, but it may be assumed that the internal commerce of the United Kingdom is equal to its exports and imports together.

In addition to this, one must take into consideration England's enormous maritime commerce. The total tonnage of her merchant marine, including only those

vessels of more than 50 tons capacity, is about equal to the total tonnage of the merchant marines of all the other nations in the world. Not only is almost the entire foreign commerce of England carried in her own ships, but a very large percentage of the commerce of other countries finds its way into the holds of the British vessels. It is estimated that the profits of British shipowners amount to $300,000,000 a year. The reason that commercial education has received but little attention in England till now is because the people have a highly developed instinct for trade. Then, again, the geographical position of the country, together with a combination of circumstances, has greatly assisted England to become the first commercial nation in the world. In Germany, France, Austria, and other nations of Europe the unfavorable geographical position and adverse circumstances have awakened the people of those countries to a realization of the fact that it is only a superior educational training that will put the merchants and manufacturers in a position to compete with those of England.

Ten years' residence and study in Germany has led me to the belief that this Empire's greatest capital is its intelligence. A process of rigid training has not only enabled Germany to overcome the disadvantages of her geographical position, but the merchants and manufacturers in England find themselves face to face with the fact that German commerce has much more rapidly increased than their own, and that many markets in different parts of the world are being lost to their German competitors.

One result of the neglect of commercial education in England is the inability of English commercial travelers and agents to properly represent the trade interests of their country. As a rule, these vital interests are in the hands of foreigners who have received special commercial training in some one of the many excellent commercial schools on the Continent. It would be difficult to estimate how many young Germans are managing the correspondence in large English business houses. A good percentage of this number, however, after they have learned the English language and as much about the industry or business of their employer as possible, find their way back to Germany again, where they exert themselves to further the commercial and industrial interests of their native country. The advent of Germany upon the scene as one of her keenest competitors has caused some anxiety in England, and the cause which has brought about this result is now generally and correctly conceded to be the superior technical and commercial training accorded to the German youth.

In 1888 the London Chamber of Commerce took the first step to change this condition of affairs. A committee was appointed which worked out some "schemes for junior and higher commercial education." This programme was accepted, not only by the London Chamber of Commerce, but by the consolidated chambers of commerce of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. It takes six years to complete the course, which embodies the following subjects:

The course is for boys between the ages of 10 and 17. The number of hours of instruction averages thirty a week. At the end of each year final examinations are held and the subjects taught during the year are thoroughly reviewed. At the end. of the six years' course the pupil is given a so-called "junior commercial certificate." The scheme for a senior commercial course is intended for pupils between 15 and

19 years of age who have the time to devote to this course. The subjects of the course are as follows:

The modern languages and literature of the junior course are also continued in the senior course. If the student is already in possession of the junior commercial certificate, he may become a candidate for final examinations, and receive, after the same are completed, the higher commercial certificate.

As a means toward interesting the youth of London in the school of the chamber of commerce, some 300 London merchants declared themselves willing to show a preference for the young men holding junior and senior certificates in filling vacant positions in their firms.

COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

Commercial education in England, when considered as a whole, is almost entirely in connection with existing schools organized for general instruction. The neglect of this subject is probably the cause of more such schools not having been founded independently instead of being attached in the form of special classes to the elementary and secondary schools and to some universities.

Special attention is paid in England to commercial subjects in connection with the evening elementary schools. These are the schools which correspond to the primary commercial schools in Germany. In England they are called “continuation schools,” are under the control of the education department, and receive their funds through Government subventions. The establishment of these schools dates back to about the year 1850, but a law passed in 1893 greatly assisted their growth. This law permits school boards to establish evening schools wherever a need for the same exists. Almost everything is taught which may be of possible benefit to the pupil in after life. The number of subjects taught is remarkably large, as it covers almost everything from modern languages and mathematics down to cooking and washing.

In 1885 only 24,233 pupils attended these schools. In 1895 the number of schools was 2,619 and the attendance had increased to 164,233 pupils. In 1898 the number of schools and pupils had increased to 3,477 and 254,943, respectively. In the city of London alone there are 368 evening continuation schools, with an attendance of about 15,000 pupils. In 1895, 6 per cent of the population of Bradford attended the evening school in that city.

The board of education has divided the instruction given in these schools into eight stages, as follows:

Elementary.-Reading, recitations, writing, composition, and arithmetic.
English.-English language, geography, history, and literature.

Languages.-French, German, Welsh, and Latin.

Mathematics.-Euclid, algebra, and mensuration.

Science. Physics, chemistry, domestic science, science of common things, mechanics, electricity, physiology, botany, agriculture, and horticulture.

Commercial.-Commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, commercial geography, history of commerce, office routine, and stenography.

Miscellaneous.-Vocal music, drawing, etc.

Subjects for women and girls.—Housekeeping, cooking, etc.

The usual age of the pupils is about 14, but persons over 20 may also be admitted. The hours of instruction shall not begin before 4 o'clock in the afternoon. In the 368 evening continuation schools of London instruction in bookkeeping, commercial arithmetic, and typewriting is given free of charge. In 1894 the education department for England and Wales granted the sum of $500,000 as subventions to these

schools. The same department for Scotland spent $100,000 and Ireland $50,000 for

this purpose.

In the elementary day schools German, French, bookkeeping, and commercial correspondence are taught.

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

The secondary, or intermediate, schools in England are divided into two parts, namely, "classical side" and "modern side." Commercial instruction is given in connection with the latter. The following is the course of study offered in the modern side of King Edward's Grammar School for Boys in Birmingham, and will serve as an example by which to judge the others:

The courses of study in this class of schools in England vary greatly, and there seems to be no definite plan of organization in existence. In the above-named school there are at present 360 pupils whose parents, for the most part, are employed in the large business houses of the city. Sixty-five per cent of the pupils come from the elementary schools, and any boy who lives within 10 miles of the Birmingham town hall has a right to apply for admission. As these schools are usually well attended, it sometimes happens that candidates are refused admittance, but it must be borne in mind that there are several grammar schools in Birmingham, and that prospective pupils invariably find room in some one of the commercial classes connected with these schools. In addition to commercial instruction in the grammar schools, there are a large number of independent schools in England which enjoy about the same relative standing.

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITIES.

London School of Economics and Political Science.-This institution was founded in 1895, after the pattern of Columbia College in New York. It has a department intended to provide for higher commercial education-that is to say, young men who wish to become merchants, bankers, and manufacturers may have the same facilities for broader study which the professional schools give to the students of law and medicine. The course of instruction is intended to give the student a deep insight into the development of modern commerce in all its phases, especial attention being paid to the trade relations of England with foreign countries. The subjects of the curriculum which have to do with commerce and trade are as follows:

1. The organization and structure of modern industry historically considered. Thirty lectures.

2. The economic position of England, with special reference to rural organizations, the iron and steel trades, and smaller manufactures. Thirty lectures.

3. The organization of English foreign trade. Ten lectures.

4. Chartered companies, past and present. Ten lectures.

5. The commercial and financial relations between England and Ireland from the period of the Restoration. Ten lectures.

6. Industrial and commercial law. Thirty lectures.

7. English foreign trade, with special reference to China and South America. Thirty lectures.

8. French commercial history since 1860.

Six lectures.

9. The economic factors in railway administration. Ten lectures.

10. The railway statistics of England and foreign countries comparatively treated. Twelve lectures.