usually followed. We do not know that it certainly will follow; but the expectation is so strong, that we act upon it as a certainty. 10. We cannot know that placing a youth in the way to receive an education, and knowledge of some art or science, will enable him to live, and thrive, and become useful to himself and others. But as such efforts have been usually successful to some extent, every parent endeavors to give his children the opportunity of making the experiment. 11. We observe that persons are, by nature, different in external form, and in the qualities of the senses, and in the power of using what the senses send into the mind. We know that both bodily and intellectual power depends much on habit and discipline. We see some children, who are apparently well gifted by nature, who have not the opportunity, or who neglect to use it, of improving their senses and their minds. We see others, who are, by nature, less fortunate, who use opportunities with great diligence, and who become superior to the former. 12. There is, probably, as much of difference among children in natural disposition, or temper, as in the senses and qualities of the mind. Education is intended, among other things, to strengthen good dispositions, and to correct erroneous or defective ones. The effect of education on the natural qualities of individuals cannot be clearly defined. There must have been many persons, whose propensities were naturally wrong, who have been saved from disgrace by discipline, and thereby made good members of society. So, also, there must have been thousands, who were naturally well disposed, and adapted to be worthy in themselves, and an honor to society, but who have been tenants of prisons, and some of whom have left the world as condemned criminals. What an appeal is this, to those who have the ordering of social welfare, to provide, and apply, the means of moral instruction! 13. Supposing these views of our nature to be substantially right, the object of the following chapters is, to point out to the youths, who are in the course of education, their relation to each other, to society, and to their country; and to show, in a plain and simple way, the excellence and value, beyond all price, of the political condition in which they exist. The further purpose is, to give some information of the social system, of which they are to become active members, and on which their own happiness, in common with that of all around them, absolutely depends. The plan is, first, to sketch the principles on which society is formed; secondly, to show the fitness of the state government to accomplish the intended object of it; thirdly, to do the like as to the national government; fourthly, to notice some subjects which concern those who are approaching manhood, and those who have risen to be citizens. CHAPTER III. Men considered individually and socially. 14. We see that men are so formed, that each one must have a care for his own safety and subsistence; that each one has wants, and is forced to find out means to satisfy them. This is a common rule to all the human race, however different may be the nature of their wants, and means of satisfying them. But as men are necessarily to live in a social state, other laws arise. Certainly the Creator has given to men the power of knowing the laws intended for their government. He has left them free to act according to what is seen to be right, and to have the benefit of obedience; or to act against what is right, and to suffer the consequences, No observing mind can doubt, that the vegetable kingdom is preserved, that the myriads of animated existence are continued (ever changing individually, though ever the same in species), not only from year to year, but through successive ages, by immutable laws. How, then, can it be doubted, that there are laws for moral and intellectual being; or that ignorance of these laws, and disobedience to them, when known, degrade man below the rank which he is permitted to hold! 15. Our first duty, then, is, to use the gift of reason in learning the laws which are prescribed to us. 16. The first fact that presents itself to our notice is, that men cannot live each one by himself, but must live together, or in society; that the wants of each individual must be such as may be gratified consistently with the like rights in others, since, by the law of nature, all men are equal in this respect. 17. The fundamental principle of society is this—that the wants and rights of each member shall be regulated by the rights and wants of every other. Writers have entertained different opinions as to the way in which men formed society in the beginning. 18. It is not easy to see how men could agree beforehand, that there should be society; but it is very clear, supposing society to exist, that it might gradually improve, from the very nature of man; and that customs, rules and laws would come. 19. We can imagine some families dwelling near each other. At first, they might get food from the natural products of the earth, and from the animals of the forest, and of the shores, and the streams. The food, so obtained, might be divided among them as a common stock, obtained by joint exertions. Their habitations might be made by joint labor. Their defence against enemies, and their warring against them, must have depended on the union of their strength. Some of the wants common to all might be supplied by joint efforts. Some rules, however simple, would necessarily exist. There would be a sense of right and wrong. The question what is right, implies the existence of a rule. This rule was found, probably, in the will of the chief, who may have become such because he led in war. When certain questions have been settled in a certain way, a rule arises. A rule, long followed, becomes a law of the strongest authority. Supposing such a collection of persons' to be capable of improvement, they would supply wants, as numbers and means increased, by exchange or barter. 20. It would soon be found, that there must be a division of labor, because each one might, by devoting his time to one occupation, produce more than if his time and attention were given to many different employments. Thus, if the same man were a baker, a blacksmith, and a housewright, he must have means of carrying on all these trades. As his attention and time would be divided on three objects, he would be less skilful in each, than if confined to one. His cost must be proportioned to his number of callings, but his gains would not be. Thus each one, led, by necessity or inclination, to pursue some particular employment, would become skilful in it, and would be able to produce more than he needed for his own use, and would have something to dispose of. For a while, a small community might go on, by exchanging one article for another, to supply the wants of each member. But as numbers, and improvements, and wants, increased, the exchanges would become more and more difficult. The person who had on hand the product of his labor, and who needed that of another, might find the latter supplied with, or in no want of the article which he had to part with. The difficulties arising in making or measuring the value of the necessary exchanges, introduced a common measure under the name of money. The word money is found in many different languages, and nearly the same in all, and is derived from the word mint (now used to signify the place of coining); and both are supposed to be derived from mine, the place whence the precious ores come. Another supposition is, that the word money is derived from mené, numbered. (Daniel v. 25.) 21. It is a provision of the Creator, that gold, silver and copper should be found in such quantities and in such places, and that they should be obtained with such labor, and be of such value, as to make just what is wanted for the convenience of mankind, as the common measure in exchange. These metals pass, or are current (whence currency), in the world under the authority of a known stamp, without weighing. Thus money becomes the common measure of all things; not only of products of labor, and of all sorts of property, but of services, of whatever description. The teacher of religion, the physician, the instructer of youth, and all that class of persons who can do something which the members of a community want to have done, are paid in money, with which they can supply their own wants. 22. The value which is thus given to the precious metals is derived from the common consent of mankind, and from their peculiar qualities and scarcity, and from their fitness to be made the measure of all things valuable. A household article made of gold is not of any greater value, for mere use, than one made of clay, or of inferior metal, unless for the reason that it is less liable to be destroyed in the use. It is within common experience, that iron, and especially when formed into steel, is much more useful than gold, or silver, or copper can be. The world have consented, universally, to regard gold and silver as the measure of all property. In every country, the value of every earthly thing that can be bought or sold, and of every service that can be rendered, is known by comparing it with a sum of money. To have money, therefore, is to have the command of property, and of all things which are not more valuable than money—as one's integrity, one's selfrespect. 23. As numbers, and wealth, and wants increase, the labors of the members of a community become more and more narrowed down to exclusive pursuits. The village grows into a town; the town becomes a city. The inhabitants of a great city are engaged in many separate occupations, each one adhering to his own calling, and, in general, trying to get money, wherewith to supply wants, whatever they may be. An extensive and varied society, embracing farming lands, manufacturing and commercial communities, villages, towns, and cities, and wherein a great amount of property is continually passing from one to another, cannot go on prosperously, and with equal justice to all its members, without established laws. But such laws, however just and righteous in themselves, are unavailing unless there be a faithful administration of them. CHAPTER IV. On the Means by which the Order of Society is preserved. 24. To show the necessity of having laws, let us suppose that the inhabitants of a great city are suddenly freed from all moral and political restraint; that each one may take and use what he can, and do every act, as to persons and property, which selfishness and evil passions may suggest. Every citizen must immediately arm himself; families and neighborhoods must unite for mutual preservation. War must arise between different combinations. There would be rules for attack and defence, and for governing each association, not only as to its enemies, but as to its own members. Some one would assume the command from necessity, and would govern by consent, and then by authority, then by force, and then by tyranny. Or we may suppose that such a chief, with some associates, would exercise such power; or that the members of such a community would meet, and agree that some things should be, and some things should not be done; that some agents should act for the whole; that disobedience of the rules agreed upon should be judged of and punished. 25. From such elements all governments must have originated. Thus government of some sort springs out of society, and society cannot exist without it. It is the only security against foreign foes, and against the wrongs which the |