AB

AARON AL RASCHID (commonly written Haroun al Raschid), the first caliph of the Abassides. His zeal for the Mahometan religion induced him to carry the Arab conquests into Spain and the Indies. He was a mild and humane prince, and a great patron of men of letters. ABAD, "built by." In the names of Indian towns the concluding syllable usually affords some clue to their past history; thus "abad" signifies "built by," as Ahmed-abad, a city built by Ahmed Shah; Aurung-abad, Hyder-abad, &c.

ABBAH, a warm woollen cloak of dust

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colour, sometimes striped black or brown, and worn by the Arabs of the Persian and Arabian Gulfs. ABDAR (literally keeper of the water"), the name given to the domestic who used to cool the wines, water, &c., with saltpetre, before enterprise afforded the residents of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay the delightful luxury of American ice; and his services are still called into requisition when the non-timely arrival of the ice-ships throws back the citizens upon their old resources. The Abdar now manages the ice; but it is only in wealthy establishments that such a servant is retained, as the Khedmutgar and Sirdar bearer between them can manage well enough.

ABKARREE, taxes or duties on the manufacture and sale in India of spirituous liquors and intoxicating drugs.

ABWAB, items of taxation, cesses,

B

ル

AD

imposts, taxes. This term was particularly used under the Mahratta government to distinguish the taxes imposed subsequently to the establishment of the assal, or original standard rent, in the nature of additions thereto. In many places they had been consolidated with the assal, and a new standard assumed as the basis of succeeding imposition. Many were levied on the Zemindars as the price of forbearance, on the part of native governments, from detailed investigations into their profits, or actual receipts from the lands, according to the hastabood.

ACBAR, otherwise called Mahomed Galladeen, one of the Mogul emperors, who reigned at Delhi in the latter part of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century. He was a wise and just sovereign, and so accessible to all his subjects, that it is recorded of him that he was accustomed to ring a bell, the rope of which was suspended in his chamber, to announce to his people that he was prepared to receive their petitions and complaints. His name is still revered in Hindostan.

ACHEEN is situated at the northwestern extremity of the island of Sumatra. This was formerly the principal trading port in that part of the world, and its sultaun was held in great respect throughout the East. It has since greatly declined, and is now a place of no consequence. ADAWLUT, justice, equity; a court of justice in India.

ADEN, a port in the Red Sea, captured from the Arabs by the British, and now forming an entrepôt for the coals of the steamers which ply between India and Suez. A British and a Sepoy regiment garrison Aden, prepared to resist any attacks from the Arabs of the desert. ADIGAR, a title of rank among the natives of Kandia, in the island of Ceylon, divided into three ranks, as follows:-1. The first, second, and third adigars, who only are allowed to wear gold and silver lace in their caps; 2. the gaja nayaka nilame; 3. the disave; 4. the mohottal; 5. the bas nayaka nilame, the lay head of the wiharas; 6. lekam mahatmaya; 7. kate mahatmaya; 8. korala; 9. kanghanama; 10. gama rala. Of these the adigars, gaja nayaka, nilame, disave, mate mahatmaya, and korala, wear white caps; the rest black ones. The kanghanama and gama rala are not allowed to wear any caps. Great numbers of these headmen are attached to the governor, and several to the government agents in the different parts of the country. Of the practices and privileges of the adigars, a complete account will be found in Forbes, Selkirk, and other writers. There is one custom, however, peculiar to the Kandian adigars, which is worthy of notice, i. e., the custom of having a certain number of whipcrackers whenever they appear in public. On all public occasions, when they are carried on elephants, or in palankeens, or in carriages, in addition to the persons required to attend upon the horses, palankeens, or carriages, the first adigar has twenty-four men bearing immense whips, with a lash about three yards long, and the handle about half a yard. These persons, curiously dressed, clear the way for them, cracking their whips with all their might. Near the adigar go two men bearing talpats, large triangular fans, made of the talpat leaf, and ornamented with talc. On each side of him is one native headman.

called the madige nilame, then a korala, a lekam mahatmaya, and two arachies, one bearing a gold cane, and the other a silver one, each holding it with both his hands. The duty of these persons is to keep silence. Then go fifty or sixty men with large spears, and in a peculiar dress, a mat-bearer, a kettle-drumbearer, a torch-bearer, and a kanghanama bearing betel. These are his necessary attendants on a festival occasion, at the wihara, or at a levée. In travelling the number of attendants is much increased. The second adigar is only entitled to twenty-four spearmen, and fifteen whipcrackers. The third to twentyfour spearmen, and twelve whipcrackers. No other headmen are allowed the honour of having whipcrackers.

ADKAREE, a governor, or superintendent; or any thing relating to a superior. A term applied in India to villages where an individual holds the entire undivided estate. ADMEE, Hindostanee for a man; burra admee, a great man. AFEREEN! Persian. An expression of praise and surprise: Admirable! Capital! You don't say so! AFGHANISTAN. This kingdom lies upon the north-western frontier of Hindostan. It is bounded on the north by ranges of mountains separating it from Tartary; east, by Cashmeer and the Indus; south, by Sind and Beloochistan; and west, by Persia. It is divided into a number of districts, corresponding with the divisions of tribes of the inhabitants; but its main portions may be considered as included under the following general heads:-Herat, Kafiristan, Cabul, Peshawur, and Candahar. The principal mountains are the Hindoo Koosh, or Indian Caucasus, which are a continuation of the Himalayas, and run westward, terminating nearly north of the city of Cabul; the Paropamisan, which run from north to south, from about 34 deg. to 29 deg. north latitude.

There are several other inferior ranges of hills connected with those above mentioned, which cross the country in various directions. Numerous mountain streams flow through the country, but with the exception of the Cabul river, the Helmund, and the Urghundab, none are of any size. The Cabul river rises in the Paropamisan mountains, and flows past Cabul easterly into the Indus, a little above Attock. The Helmund also rises in the same mountains, about thirty miles to the westward of Cabul, and flows southerly and westerly into a large lake called the Zoor, on the borders of Persia. The Urghundab rises in the hills, about eighty miles north-east of Candahar, and flows south-westerly into the Helmund. This country possesses great variety of surface, as well as of climate and productions. It may be described generally as consisting of wild, bleak mountains and hills, with extensive tracts of waste land, together with fertile plains and valleys, populous and well cultivated. The climate of different parts varies extremely, owing partly to the difference of latitude, but chiefly to the difference of elevation. About Herat the snow lies deep through the winter months, and in the Cabul district the cold is severe. At Ghuznee, especially, where the snow is often on the ground from October to March, while the rivers are frozen, the cold is quite equal to that of England. The climate of Candahar is mild, snow being rarely seen, and that of Peshawur is oppressively hot during summer, and not colder in winter than that of Hindostan. During winter, the inhabitants of the cold districts clothe themselves in woollen garments, and in some places in clothes of felt, over which they wear a large great coat, called a posteen, made of tanned sheep skin, with the wool inside. They have fires in their houses, and often sleep round stoves. Kafiristan occupies the mountainous country lying along

the northern frontier of Cabul. It is composed of snowy mountains, covered with deep pine forests, with small but fertile valleys, producing abundance of grapes, and furnishing pasture for sheep and cattle. Cabul is also mountainous, but has extensive plains and forests, though between the city of Cabul and the Indus there is a great scarcity of wood. The part lying between Cabul and the mountains is called the Kohistan or highlands. Candahar is more open, but not so fertile, and large portions are desert. Herat is hilly towards the north and north-east, but generally open, and one of the most fertile countries in the world. Wheat, barley, and rice, are the principal grains produced in this country. Wheat is the general food, barley being given to the horses. It also yields abundance of fruits and vegetables, both European and Asiatic, besides tobacco, sugar, assafoetida, alum, rock salt, saltpetre, sulphur, lead, antimony, iron, copper, and a little gold. The wild animals are generally the same as in India, the elephant excepted, which is not an inhabitant of Afghanistan. The common Indian camel is found in all parts of the level country, and wild sheep and goats are numerous. Herat is celebrated for a fine breed of horses, and Bameean for a description of poneys called yaboos, much used for carrying burdens. Mules and asses also abound, and are used for the same purpose. The sheep, of which large flocks are pastured, are generally of the broad, fat tailed kind. There are fine dogs, especially greyhounds and pointers, and cats of the long-haired description, known in India as the Persian. Snakes and scorpions are found, but no alligators. Wolves are numerous, and during winter are fierce, sometimes attacking men. The commonest woods are oak, cedar, walnut, and a species of fir. Wind-mills and water-mills are generally used for grinding the corn. Neither palankeens

nor

wheeled carriages are used, both sexes being accustomed to travel on horses or camels. Coal is found about Kohat in the Peshawur district, and naphtha, or petroleum, that is, earth oil. Silk worms are also reared in this part. The principal towns are Herat, Cabul, Julalabad, Peshawur, Ghuznee, Candahar, Khelat-i-Ghilzee, and Dura Ismail Khan. By Europeans, this country is commonly designated by the general name of Cabul. By the Persians it is styled Afghanistan, meaning the land of the Afghans, by which name also it is usually mentioned in Indian history. The inhabitants are known by the general name of Afghans, which is a Persian appellation. Their common national designation, among themselves, is Pooshtanu or Pookhtanu, but they more frequently use the names of the different tribes. In India, they are generally denominated Pathans, and in the province of Delhi, Rohillas. The Afghans assert that they are descended from the Jews, and often style themselves "Bun-i-Israeel," or children of Israel, though they consider the term Yahoodee, or Jew, as one of reproach. It is certain that they have in many points a strong resemblance to the Jews, and there appears reason to believe that the tradition of their origin is not unfounded. They are divided into a number of distinct tribes, or Oolooss, each consisting of a number of separate clans, and these last again subdivided into khails, which means a band or assemblage. principal are the following:-First, the Dooranee, formerly called the Abdallee, which includes amongst its clans the Populzye, the head Khail of which is the Suddoozye, the chief division of the whole of the Dooranees, and containing the royal family; the Barikzye, the Achikzye, Noorzye, and others. Second, the Ghilzees. Third, the Berdooranees, or eastern Afghans, including the Yoosoofzyes, Khyberees, and others.

The

The termination zye means son, corresponding with the Mac prefixed to Scotch names. There are also in the towns many of mixed descent, from different parts of Asia; amongst whom are the Kuzzilbashes and Tajiks of Persian origin, and the Hindkees, the descendants of settlers from Hindostan. The inhabitants of Kafiristan, which means the land of the infidels, are called the Syah posh, or Syah posh Kafirs, from their usually wearing dresses of black sheep skin; syah signifying black, and posh a covering. They are a fine handsome race, very fair, many of them having light hair and blue eyes, on which account it has been conjectured that they are the descendants of the Greeks. There seems reason, however, to believe that this is not the case, and that they are the descendants of the original inhabitants of Cabul and Candahar. They are a brave and hospitable people, though in a rude state, and have never been conquered by the Afghans. They have no king, but are divided into a number of independent tribes. Some of the tribes, occupying the borders, are termed Neemchu-Moosulmans, or half Moosulmans, from their having partially adopted the Mahomedan faith. They are generally idolaters. The language of the Afghans is called Pushtoo. It is written in the Persian character. Persian is also used by the chiefs, and the descendants of the Hindoo settlers speak a mixed dialect, resembling Hindostanee, called Hindkee. AGA, Turkish and Persian.

Equi

valent to "gentleman" in English, and used when the person addressed is not noble, neither khan, bey, nor meerza, neither in the civil nor military service of the court. AGHON, the eighth month in the Hindostanee year. See BYSACK. AGNI is, according to the Hindoo mythology, the personification of Ag', fire, and the regent of the south-east division of the earth.