probability that the invention was of a much more remote date; as it is not likely that cannon, immediately after the discovery of gunpowder, would have been brought to sufficient perfection for wall service; or that a very new invention would have been alluded to in the nomination of the pieces used in the game of chess, peculiar to China.

It is so far from an impossibility that the same thing may have been invented by different persons in various parts of the world, that no fact is better proved to have frequently occurred; but to invent an important matter, and to bring it into general use, are distinct affairs, and seldom fall to the lot of the same person.

The discovery made by Bacon was most probably not more attended to in an age of ignorance, than new discoveries are at the present enlightened period, when they make such slow progress towards universal adoption: and that of Schwartz was evidently of the same nature. It is, therefore, much more probable, that the use of gunpowder in war was derived ultimately from the Chinese, than that it originated in the cell of an obscure monk, such as Schwartz; or of one, though of more notoriety, yet from the prejudices of the times held in abhorrence for an imputation of sorcery, as Bacon was. The mode in which the use of gunpowder in war might have passed from China to Europe is the most probable and simple imaginable. Zingis Khan is known to have conquered the five northern provinces of China about the year1234. In this conquest, that he must have learned the use of gunpowder, and have practised it afterwards, would have been manifest from reason alone; as at that time it had been in common use in China upwards of 1400 years, from the facts before stated. But we have also the positive testimony of history to attest this point; for in the Chinese annals of the Moguls by Yuen, as translated by Pere Gaubil, it is particularly stated, that the use of cannon and mortars was familiar in the wars and sieges of Zingis against the Chinese, both by them and him, in attack and defence. It is most probable that he used gunpowder in his wars against Mohammed, Sultan of Carisme, whose dominions extended from the Persian gulph to the borders of India and of Turkistan; all which he added to his empire, destroying many flourishing cities, and lay ing waste a tract of many hundred miles, extending from the Caspian Sea to the Indus, which was richly adorned with the

At

labours and buildings of mankind; and which has not yet in the least recovered from the effect of his ravages. It is well known that he had a body of Chinese engineers in his army, who of course must have been acquainted with the use of gunpowder; and his rapid successes were probably greatly owing to this circumstance. The conquests of Zingis would thus have spread the knowledge of gunpowder over the western part of Asia, where, at the time of the crusades, the Europeans would have frequent opportunities of learning it; and accordingly we find that it was just after this time that it was first used by Europeans in war. no long period after the return of Edward the First to England, who was so famous for his victories in Palestine, we hear of cannon used by the English against the French. The Venetians, who used them in their wars to so much greater extent, that the invention has been commonly attributed to them, were of all Europeans the most connected with Asia at that period; therefore those who would be most likely to learn the use of gunpowder from the Asiatics: and these are strong testimonies in favour of the introduction of the invention into Europe in the manner stated, especially as we can trace many arts to Asia, which are wel! known to have been also learned there by Europeans at the time of the Crusades. Another argument in favour of this opinion is, that the first war, in which cannon were much employed in Europe, was one carried on by Asiatics against Europeans, in which they were used exclusively bythe Asiatics. It was most remarkable in this

war, at the siege of Constantinople, and in 1453, in which Mahomet the Second used one of the largest cannon ever made, which threw a stone bullet of 600lbs. weight. Some knowledge of the use of gunpowder might also have been introduced into Europe by the successes of Zingis, who extended their conquests over a large portion of Russia, the greatest part of Poland, and subdued all Hungary except three cities, and overran Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria; and who must have known its effects in war, when it was used by the armies of their predecessors, as before shown. In addition to the reasons mentioned for the Asiatic origin of the use of gunpowder, it should be noted, that the Germans were one of the last nations in Europe who adopted its use; which renders its having been first invented in that country highly improbable.

It was many years after the introduction of cannon in Europe, bofore they attained that form and equipment which fitted them for any extensive use. At the siege of Constantinople, before mentioned, which was 107 years after the battle of Cressy, their form was in the highest degree rude and inconvenient; the object of their use then seemed to be, to imitate the effect of the ancient balista in throwing large masses of stone; the large cannon before mentioned, that threw a stone of 600lbs. weight, was so unwieldy, that 60 oxen were employed nearly two months in drawing it about 150 miles from Adrianople; and it could be only charged and discharged seven times each day.

We find that, at no very remote period, the chief reliance in war continued to be placed in other implements of battle than those for which gunpowder was necessary. In the reign of Henry the Seventh it appears that cannon were in some degree neglected, as there is said to be no order on record relative to gunpowder or canhon in his reign. In the reign of Elizabeth the effect of the bow and arrow still seems to be preferred in war to that produced by gunpowder, as there were several acts passed by her relative to bows and archery, which showed them then to be considered as of the utmost importance; and even as late as the reign of Charles the First, two special commis. sions were granted for enforcing the use of the long bow.

In fact, it is only a few years back since the use of cannon in the field, or artillery properly so called, obtained the predominance it at present holds. The era of the French revolution may be considered that of its complete adoption; which was not a little aided by the invention of the species called flying artillery, which took place shortly afterwards.

By artillery, is also understood the science which the officers of artillery ought to possess. This science teaches the knowledge of the materials and ingredients that enter into the composition and structure of whatever relates to the artillery: the construction, proportion, &c. of the different warlike machines: the arrangement, movement and management of cannon, in the field, or in sieges, in such a manner, that each of them according to the length of its tube, and the diameter of its bore, may be situated in the best place for doing execution: and that the whole train, taken together, may assist and support each other with the greatest advantage

Cannon are chiefly prepared by casting

fused metal into moulds made of a fit form, and afterwards boring out the barrels and touch-holes from the solid mass. They were formerly cast with the barrels hollowed out in part, and were afterwards finished by boring; but the method now in use prepares a greater proportion of perfect pieces out of a given number of

casts.

Cannon for field service, or artillery, are usually made of copper, alloyed with about a tenth of tin; the tin adds hardness and solidity to the composition,which (on account of its lightness, its greater durability, and being less liable to burst, and, when that accident occurs, not being apt to fly asunder in small pieces, but rather splitting asunder,) is preferred to cast iron. It is possible to make them even lighter of hammered iron than of the above composition; and a very neatly finished piece of this kind is among the stores at the Warren in Woolwich, sent in some years ago by the maker, as a specimen of what might be done in this way. It was judged that its recoil would be too great, on account of its singular lightness, and therefore this sort was not introduced into actual service; but it would be no great difficulty to prepare carriages for them, so as to admit of having a sufficient load of sand or earth added, when wanted, which might be thrown away when they were to be removed to any distance; and then their great lightness would fit them admirably for service in mountainous countries. Cannon have also been made of staves of hammered iron, bound together by hoops of the same metal, and a large one of this sort may be seen at the Tower; but we have no account as to their use, durability, or safety.

The form preferred for cannon may be defined that of a right cone, obtruncated at the apex, and from which a small cylinder has been subtracted, to form the barrel. The greatest force of the ignited powder being exerted at the breech, a cannon is of course made thickest at that part: its thickness diminishes but little for about a quarter of its length, when it is suddenly reduced in the breadth of its mouldings in that part; it is again reduced abruptly at about half its length, and then continues diminishing very gradually to near the muzzle, where it is again enlarged; it having been found that the shot in departing was apt to exert a greater force against the gun in that place. The two parts of the gun, where the thickness is increased, are called the reinforces. Some guns have been made in foreign

countries, which have no reinforces or increase of thickness at the muzzle; a very beautiful one of this description of brass, of a large size, now lies in St. James'

Park, as a trophy of war, brought from Egypt by the victorious troops commanded by General Lord Hutchinson.

Thickness of metal.

In heavy and medium brass guns, the first and second reinforces are similar frustrums of right cones; and consequently, when produced, their outlines will be parallel to each other, and are distant one-sixteenth part of the calibre. The exterior diameter of the piece is also diminished by that quantity, and its outline is drawn to the muzzle astragal.

In light guns, the length of the piece must be divided into eighteen equal parts, of which

5 parts are taken for the breech and
first reinforce;

4 parts for the second reinforce;
9 ... for the chase;
2. for the length of the muzzle;

part for the diameter of the neck. The axis of the trunnions are 8 parts from the breech, and half a calibre below the axis of the piece. The position of the trunnions of heavy and medium brass guns is as three-sevenths of the length of the piece, from the extremity of the breech, and half a calibre below the axis of the piece, reckoning to their centres. The diameter of the trunnions are each one calibre, and their length the same, allowing for the projection of the second reinforce ring; their faces are parallel to the axis of the piece. The trunnions of medium and light brass guns have shoulders, which are a tenth of the diameter of the trunnion in breadth, and of sufficient depth to clear the projection of the second reinforce rings.

The vent fields are one-seventeenth of the breech and first reinforce.

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17

32 30

32 30

22

25 16

10

20

24

30

24 24

4

32

26

26

22

48

44 36

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The chase girdles are one-fourteenth part of the chase.

The length of the muzzle is equal to the diameter of the second reinforce ring in heavy guns; and in medium guns, oneseventh of the length of the piece. The diameter of the swell of the muzzle is equal to the diameters of the second reinforce rings.

The bottom of the bores of heavy brass guns is a plain surface, meeting the sides in a small arc described with the radius of 1-24th of a calibre; in medium and light guns they are hemispherical, and their vents form an angle of 75 degrees with the axis of the piece; making in light guns one-third of the calibre, and in medium one-fourth of the calibre, from the extremity of the bore.

The vents of heavy guns are a fifth of an inch in diameter.

In medium and light guns there is a portion of metal beneath the neck of the cascable, for receiving the loop of the elevating screw. The lower part of it is the arc of a circle, described with a radius equal to the semidiameter of the neck; of the position of the centre is one-fourth part of the distance from the extremity of the breech moulding to that of the button, and is one-fourteenth of the diameter of the neck below it.

Medium and heavy guns are cast with dolphins, by which they are occasionally suspended, and they consequently should be placed over the centre of gravity of them, or rather so that the breech may preponderate in a small degree.

The bed of the 12 pounder is 3 feet 3 inches in length.

The most usual mode by which cannon are discharged is, by applying a kindled match to the touch-hole. Locks, on a similar principle to musket locks, have been tried in sea service, and have been found to perform very well, but their use is by no means general.

A very great improvement has been made in matches by M. Leroy, who has found that small rods of lime-tree, and some other soft woods, prepared with infusion of nitrate of lead, or nitrate of cop

per, form matches much superior to the common sort. For the method of making them, see the articles MATCH and PORT

FIRE.

For the construction of iron guns for battering pieces, and garrison and ship guns, mortars, howitzers, and for other particulars relative to artillery in general, see the articles CANNON, MORTARS, HOWITZERS, GUNNERY, and PROJECTILES.

It would appear, at a superficial view, that the adoption of cannon and gunpowder in war had rendered it more bloody and destructive than the method of fighting and the arms formerly in use; but the reverse of this will be found in reality to have taken place. The chief contest in modern warfare is for posts and stations, where artillery can have such command of the adjoining ground, as to give a material superiority; and as the chief combat is carried on from a distance, on a reverse of fortune the defeated have more opportunities of safe retreat. Hence mere extermination of an enemy ceases to be the ultimate design of war: when a post is seized, those under its influence no longer think of contending; the odds, against their success, are so excessive, that it ceases to be any disgrace to yield, and those become prisoners of war, who, in the ancient warfare, must have been devoted to massacre. In the history of remote periods, we often read of 200,000 or more men entering the field of battle, and not more than a dozen or two escaping alive, and in a few instances not even so many. Such sanguinary terminations to engagements never now occur, and it often happens, that in a long campaign not more lives are lost than formerly have perished in a single battle.

The following observations of Dr. Smith on the subject shew still more the advantage to mankind in general of the use of cannon, and other modern instruments of war.

"In modern war, the great expense of fire-arms gives an evident advantage to the nation which can best afford that expense; and consequently to an opulent and civilized over a poor and barbarous nation. In ancient times, the opulent and civilized found it difficult to defend themselves against the poor and barbarous nations. In modern times, the poor and barbarous find it difficult to defend themselves against the opulent and civilized. The invention of fire-arms, an invention which at first sight appears so be so pernicious, is certainly favourable both to the permanency and to the extension of civilization.

This circumstance alone reduces the VOL. II.

Tartar hordes to comparative insignificance, who in ancient times were so formidable to the civilized world: who more than once have reduced it to primitive ignorance and barbarity, by the indiscriminate destruction of men of science and artists; and whose numbers, which have procured that part of the world they inhabit the name of the officina gentium, might be still an object of terror, but for the use of cannon.

ARTILLERY, flying, a species of it called so from the celerity with which it is moved from station to station.

Seats are contrived in the carriage and limbers of guns of this sort for the men who work it, and a sufficient number of horses are added to carry the whole at a gallop, when the ground will admit of this pace. Each horse is in general rode by a separate driver, and the men are all trained either to drive or work the gun, as occasion may require.

Flying artillery were first used by the French, shortly after their revolution, and materially assisted them in some of their most signal victories. Their use has now become general in Europe, and may be expected to increase.

ARTIST, in a general sense, a person skilled in some art; or, according to Mr. Harris's definition, a person possessing an habitual power of becoming the cause of some effect, according to a system of various and well-approved precepts. In this sense, we say, an excellent, a curious artist. The pre-eminence is disputed between ancient and modern artists, especially as to what relates to sculpture, painting, and the like. At Vicenza, we are told of a privilege granted to artists, like that of clergy in England; in virtue of this, criminals adjudged to death save their lives, if they can prove themselves the most excellent and consummate workmen in any useful art. This benefit is allowed them in favorem artis, for the first offence, except for some particular crimes, of which coining is one. exception is just, since here the greater the artist, the more dangerous the person. Evelyn's Disc. of medals, ch. vii. p. 237, &c. Artists are persons who practise those arts which must necessarily be combined with a considerable degree of science, distinguishing them from such as are properly artizans or mechanics. Artists are, particularly, those who study and effect what are termed the polite arts, i. e. painting, sculpture, and architecture, to which may be added engraving. It appears that all civilized nations in every age have produced artists, and that with

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