fully justify this principle: "In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened." Course of Study. The full course of four years in agriculture comprises the following subjects: (In some cases, a few are omitted or a few added; but those mentioned will serve to show what studies are now generally considered applicable and necessary in this course)-(1) algebra; (2) solid, plane, and analytical geometry, trigonometry, and the calculus; (3) rhetoric and composition, declamation and English literature; (4) drawing, free-hand and linear; (5) surveying and mapping; (6) book-keeping, especially applied to farm accounts; (7) botany, general and agricultural; (8) horticulture, floriculture, and general, market, and landscape gardening; (9) history, which may comprise one or more of the following: American, English, Roman, French, agricultural, and history of civilization; (10) physiology, hygiene, and comparative anatomy, (11) zoology and entomology; (12) veterinary anatomy, physiology, medicine, and surgery; (13) chemistry, general and agricultural; (14) French and German, usually extending through not less than two or three terms (when both languages are not required, German is usually preferred); (15) physics, geology, mineralogy, and meteorology (16) constitutional and municipal law and political economy; (17) mechanics applied to agriculture; (18) strength and preservation of materials; (19) rural architecture. The subjects treated of under the head of applied or practical agriculture-with slight changes are as follows: (1) stock-breeding, including the laws of likeness or similarity, variation and atavism; the influence on the subsequent progeny of the dam, by the first fruitful connection, in-and-in and miscellaneous breeding, the government of sex, the relative influence of sire and dam on the progeny, pedigrees and their value, the history, formation, and characteristics of breeds and families; (2) the selection, breeding, feeding, and general management of domestic animals, each species and race being treated of separately; (3) annual nutrition; (4) the education, shoeing, driving, and care of the horse; (5) drains, their material and construction, and the effect of drainage on health. soil, climate, and plants; (6) soils, their classification, character, mechanical division, and preparation for the cereals and grasses; (7) the preparation and selection of seed; (8) sowing, planting, cultivating, and harvesting; (9) the nutrition of plants; (10) insect enemies and fungi (11) the culture of roots and their value as food for man and beast; (12) forage plants. their culture, use, and value; (13) weeds. their habit of growth, time of seeding, and mode of eradication; ;(14) the effects of air, water, heat, and light. on the fertility of the soil and the growth of plants; (15) the care, cultivation, and use of natural and artificial forests; (16) fields, their number, shape, and size; (17) fences, their material, construction, and durability; (18) farm yards and buildings; (19) water priv 11 ileges; (20) farın accounts; (21) the manufacture, preservation, and application of farm manures; (22) the rotation of crops; (23) farm machinery and tools; (24) rural law. The subjects of instruction, as far as possible, are illustrated by diagrams, cuts, and models. The lectures are supplemented by field practice, varying from 5 to 15 hours per week, and sometimes even more. Visits are frequently made to adjoining farms and herds. The lectures and practice usually extend through at least one year. The foregoing statement shows conclusively that there has been an earnest, systematic, and successful effort to promote the education of the rural classes; and it may be truthfully said, that, within the last ten years, no other department of education has made an equal degree of advancement. The first agricultural school in Europe was founded, in 1804, by Fellenberg, at Hofwyl in Switzerland. It flourished for more than 30 years under the excellent direction of Wehrli, and educated nearly 3,000 pupils. The success of Hofwyl led to the establishment of other schools of the same character; and, at present, such schools are found in every country of Europe. They are very numerous in Germany and Austria, and are divided into two classes, a lower, called Ackerbauschule, intended chiefly to give practical instruction in agriculture, and a higher, called Landwirthschaftsschule, in which the whole science of agriculture, with all its auxiliary sciences. is taught. The most celebrated among the schools of a higher class are those at Hohenheim (established in 1818), Schleisheim (1822), Jena (1826), Eldena (1835), Wiesbaden (1836), Tharand (1829), Regenwalde (1842), Poppelsdorf (1846), Proskau (1847), UngarischAltenburg (1818). Special chairs of agriculture have been established at the universities of Berlin, Halle, Goettingen, Munich, Leipsic, Giessen, and Jena; and instruction in agriculture is also given in the polytechnic schools. England has a Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, founded in 1849; and in Scotland, the University of Edinburgh has a chair of agriculture, and special lectures are given in a college at Aberdeen. Ireland has two agricultural schools of a higher grade.-one at Templemoyle, founded in 1827; and the other at Glasnevin, founded in 1838. France has three higher agricultural schools and one school of forestry. In Italy, there are two agricultural schools of a higher grade, at Milan and Portici. Russia, beside a large number of schools of agriculture and forestry of a lower grade, has an Agricultural Institute at Gorygorezk, founded in 1836, an Institute of Agriculture and Forestry at New Alexandria, and an Academy of Agriculture and Forestry at Petrovskoi. See LOEBE, Die landwirthschaftlichen Lehranstallen Europa's (Stuttgart, 1849); SCHULZ, Die theoretisch-praktische Ackerbauschule (Jena, 1869). In the following tabular exhibit, will be found a full statement of the location, condition, resources, etc., of all the agricultural colleges and departments in the United States. STATE TOWN Name and location of institution, and date of organiza. tion Name, title, and age president No. of profs. in Agr. & Mech. Col leges during last collegiate year No. of students graduated who, P denotes preparatory department connected with the institution Ark. Indus. University, ogy Mass. Agr. College, Oc- Agr. Coll. of Nebraska, Corvallis College, August, 1868.. Pennsylvania State Col- Univ. of Vermont and *No distinct degree for these departments. Graduated as Ph. B. **No Report. AHN, Johann Franz, a German teacher, noted for his method of teaching foreign languages, was born in 1796, and died in 1865. He gave instruction for many years in the Realschule at Neuss, and published several manuals for teaching the German and other languages; but his chief work was his Practical Method for the rapid and easy Learning of the French Language (Praktischer Lehrgang zur schnellen und leichten Erlernung der französischen Sprache). This work, between 1834 and 1875, passed through 190 editions. He was also the author of several works in general literature. His elementary books on the study of foreign languages have been translated into all the languages of the civilized world, and have every-where found an immense circulation. The fame thus acquired by Ahn's method of studying foreign languages, has led to numerous imitations, not a few of which are utterly unworthy of the just reputation of the original author. The method of Ahn was, to a large extent, founded on the works of Dr. Seidenstücker, and combines both the analytical and the synthetical method. The principle on which it is based is, that the mode of learning a foreign language should, as closely as possible, correspond to the manner in which a child acquires a knowledge of his native tongue. AINSWORTH, Robert, an English teacher and scholar of considerable eminence, was born in 1660, and died in 1743. He taught private schools for some years, but having soon obtained a competency, he was enabled to relinquish the business of teaching. From 1714 to 1736, he was engaged in compiling the Latin dictionary which has made him famous. This work was extensively used in schools both in England and in the United States, but has for some years been superseded by works of greater accuracy. ALABAMA, one of the southern states of the American Union, was originally a part of Georgia, except the south-western portion, which belonged to Florida. It was set off from Georgia, in 1798, as a portion of the Territory of Mississippi. From 1817 to 1819, it was known as the Territory of Alabama, in the latter year, being admitted into the Union as a state. Its area is 50,722 sq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 996,992, of whom 521,384 were whites; 475,510, colored persons; and 98, Indians. Educational History.—The first constitution of the state declared that "schools and the means of education should be forever encouraged," and gave directions for the preservation of all land grants received for this purpose from the general government, and the seminary lands for a "state university for the promotion of the arts, literature, and science." Attempts were made, in 1823, and at various times thereafter, to organize an efficient public-school system; but little was accomplished till 1854, when a general system was established under which, according to the report of the superintendent of education, the state, in 1857, was "in proportion to her white tax-paying and school-attending population, far ahead of nearly all the southern states, and most of the New England states; was the superior, in the school room, of even Massachusetts; and was almost the peer of New York and Pennsylvania." In 1856, county superintendents were substituted for the county boards of school commissioners previously existing. Under this system, township trustees had complete control of the school funds, and could aid schools already established according to their discretion. In 1860, according to the census of that year, there were in the state 1,903 public schools, with 61,751 pupils, and 17 colleges, attended by 2,120 students, besides 206 academies and other schools, with 10,778 pupils. The income for the support of common schools was $489,474, of which nearly $200,000 was derived from public funds. The progress made during the previous decade is indicated by the fact that, in 1850, there were reported 127,390 children in the state, of whom only 35,039 were attending school. The constitution of the state, ratified Feb. 4., 1868, expressly provided that all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years should be educated free of charge; and in accordance with its provisions, a new system was adopted the same year, which placed the schools under the supervision and control of a board of education, and gave to county superintendents much of the power before committed to township trustees. In 1871, the school law was again changed, the control of the schools being entrusted to a state superintendent, district superintendents, and township trustees, all elected by the people. The state board of education was abolished, its duties being discharged by the legislature, which, in the words of the law, "shall designate, in advance, such days as they may deem best (during the session of the general assembly) for the consideration of measures relating to the educational interests of the state; on which days the state superintendent shall be entitled to a seat in the house then considering educational measures, and shall have, and may exercise, all of the rights and privileges of a member of such house, but have no vote." In 1872, -3, and -4, various changes were made in the school law; but the new constitution of the state, which took effect December 6., 1875, supersedes all laws previously passed, and confirms that portion of the act proposed in 1871, which relates to the administration of the schools. State Superintendents. — The office of state superintendent was first filled by General W. F. Perry, his title being Superintendent of Educacation. He was elected by the legislature in 1854. His successor, in 1854, was G. B. Du Val, who died in office, his successor being J. B. Taylor, who was appointed to fill the vacancy in 1865. John Ryan was elected to the office in 1866, and served till 1867, when the cffice was merged in that of state comptroller, its duties being performed by M. A. Chisholm, from November, 1867, to July, 1868. In that year, the title of the office was changed to that of Superintendent of Public Instruction, N. B. Cloud being the first incumbent. His successors were J. Hodg son (1870-72); J. H. Speed (1872-4); and J. M. McKleroy (1874 to the present time). On the expiration of the term of the present incumbent, the title of the office will again be, according to the new constitution, Superintendent of Education. 15 sembly shall provide by taxation or otherwise." It is, also, made the duty of the assembly to increase, from time to time, the public-school fund, as the condition of the treasury and the resources of the state will admit.' In addition to this, each county may raise, by annual taxation, an amount not exceeding 10 cents on each $100 of taxable property. Ninety-six per cent of the money raised or appropriated must be used for the payment of teachers unless otherwise directed by a vote of two-thirds of each branch of the legislature. Schools for whites and blacks must be separate. Sectarian or denominational schools are not entitled to any share of the public-school money. The school age is from 7 to 21 years. 53,526.94 School System. The state superintendent of education. is the highest educational officer of the state. The length of his term of office is not fixed by the constitution; but the general assembly, it is thought, will make it four years. He is elected by the people. Discharging as he does the duties of state superintendent and state board of education, his powers are greater than those usually devolving on state superintendents, his time and care being entirely devoted to the schools. He is required to give bonds in the sum Educational Condition. The number of of $20,000, and to have his office at the state school-districts in the state, in 1875, was 1,696, capitol, where he must be in constant attendance the area of each being six miles square except in unless absent on official duties. He makes annu- the case of fractional townships. In each of these ally a detailed report to the governor, not only districts. there must be, at least, one school for of the condition of the schools, but of the sums each race,-white and colored. The school reveexpended for their support. County superintend-nue, at that time, was as follows: ents are elected biennially by the people. Their Interest on 16th section fund....$146,983.32 duties are, to see that one free school in which "the surplus revenue elementary English branches shall be taught, is maintained in each school-district-townships and school-districts being co-extensive; to visit the schools once a year; to pay teachers; to hold teachers' institutes; and to take charge of all school moneys, and disburse them according to law. County directors, two in number, are chosen at the same time, and for the same term, as the county superintendent. With him, they constitute a county board for the examining and licensing of teachers and maintaining a general oversight of the schools and school property. Three township trustees are elected biennially who have the immediate control of the schools, subject to supervision by the county superintendent. In several of the cities, special school laws are in force, by which the immediate management of the schools is entrusted to city boards of commissioners, subject either to the supervision of the county superintendent, or of city super- No. of children of school age: white, 233,733 intendents. Four grades of schools are comprehended in the operation of the law-primary, fund. 1875.. Total.... 209,887.44 80,486.66 73,555.30 .$564,439.66 This state has received from the Peabody fund, since 1868, $59,550. The amount received in 1875 was $4,300. (See PEABODY FUND.) The expenditures were as follows: Poll-tax disbursed by superintend counties and .$73,555.30 .476,332.29 Apportioned Total. 2,550.00 .$562,437.59 The other principal items of school statistics are the following: Total..... Total. intermediate, grammar, and high schools. In the No. of children enrolled: colored, 172,537 .406,270 white, 91,202 .145,797 white, 67,024 Total..... colored, male, female, 1,006 female, 284 from the 16th section trust fund, the surplus Normal Instruction. Three state normal schools are in existence, the expenditure for which, during the year 1875, was $10,000. The first, at Florence, organized in 1873, is designed for the education of white teachers of both sexes. |