office, since language, the most efficient means of all education, depends upon its exercise. Moral education, no doubt, also begins with the genial accents of the maternal voice, both in speech and song, as heard by the infant; so that even the lullabies which soothe it to slumber constitute an agency in its development. While, therefore, loud and explosive noises may injure the physical organization of the ear of the child, harsh and angry tones may affect injuriously the development of its affections and sentiments. All disagreeable sensuous impressions are deeper and more durable than those of an opposite character; and, hence, when often repeated, they tend to destroy the capacity of the ear for the appreciation of beautiful sounds. Otherwise, variety of sound is not detrimental to the infant's ear, but on the contrary, beneficial, especially when the source of each sound is, at the same time, presented to the sight, or touch, or both these senses. From the time the infant begins to understand simple language, usually after the fourth month, especially if the words are accompanied with mimicry or gesticulation, care should be taken to articulate distinctly. In families in which there is a negligence in this respect, it will be found that the children either never, or with very great difficulty, acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great error, quite common in some families and communities, to repress the natural vociferations of children, and to insist on the constant use of low tones in speech. Nature dictates a great deal of crying, shouting, etc., in order that the lungs and vocal organs may be fully developed; but, of course, all excess should be restrained, since the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air will not only injure the delicate organs of the voice, but will have a bad effect upon the moral development of the child, besides incapacitating him for the perception and appreciation of those delicate distinctions of sound upon which musical harmony and melody depend. To what an extent this nice perception and discrimination of sound may be cultivated, appears from the fact that, in good kindergartens, a child will learn to distinguish blindfolded the voice of any one of a hundred comrades, to tell by what means any one of a hundred different noises is produced, and to estimate with tolerable accuracy the distance of the source of any well-known sound. Very young children may also, by suitable exercises, readily acquire the ability to distinguish the intervals of musical notes, and their position in the scale. By similar kindergarten exercises, even cases of constitutional difficulty in hearing may be considerably alleviated. Thus such a child may be shown how, by closing the mouth and nostrils, the air may be forced into the Eustachian tubes, until the well-known explosive sound of each tympanum follows. After every such exertion, the hearing will be found to become somewhat better, until, by frequent repeti EAR, Cultivation of the. Recent physiological researches appear to leave but little reason to doubt that, at birth and for months afterward, the organs of the special senses exist in only a rudimentary form, and that they owe their gradual development entirely to the external influences exerted upon them by nature and society. It is, therefore, not only probable, but experimentally demonstrable, that the education of the senses is more or less efficient according to the time at which it begins after birth. In the light of modern experience, it is considered by some extremely doubtful whether there is really any case of actual congenital blindness or deafness. The tendency to these defects, doubtless, often exists as an hereditary imper- | fection, but is scarcely ever of such a nature as to be incurable, if discovered and treated properly Soon after birth. Hence, except when an organic malformation exists, it follows that a systematic and judicious training of the senses, from the earliest infancy, may remedy most, if not all. cases of such defects as color-blindness, weakness of sight and hearing, etc. Such indeed is the conclusion derived from the experience gained in infant asylums, kindergartens, and intelligent families. This is an important fact, since it serves to correct the notion, so generally entertained, that good speakers and singers must be born such, and that there are but few persons thus naturally endowed. There is, without doubt, considerable diversity in the sensuous endowments of different individuals; but, at the same time, it is impossible to fix a limit to the improvement of which every organ of sense is susceptible by continuous and proper education, and particularly by a cultivation carried on through several successive generations. As regards the ear, this may be considered as historically established; since, but three centuries ago, there were but an exceptional few persons who showed an ability to appreciate, and a still smaller number who were able to reproduce, musical melody and harmony. Of all the ancient nations, the Greeks alone seem to have been able to enjoy the diatonic scale (but not the chromatic), and to give it expression in their music, other nations never having any other than the scale of five notes (barbaric scale). The progress of musical art among modern civilized nations and particularly the diffusion of musical taste among the people are striking illustrations of car culture, since this progress could not be effected without an organic as well as an esthetic improvement. The sense of hearing is the earliest to be developed in infancy, and, at the approach of death, seems to be the last to be extinguished; it is also the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to be aroused on awakening. In reaching objects at a distance, its power is next to that of sight. In the earliest stages of intellectual development, the sense of hearing performs a most important the tion, its improvement will be quite decided; be- | been recently commenced, and are constantly cause the fine blood-vessels of the organ, in which receiving accessions. A chemical laboratory has the circulation had become stagnant, are ren- been established. The value of the grounds, builddered active; provided, of course, there is no mal- ings, and apparatus is $150,000; the amount formation or incurable physical defect in the of productive funds, $396,000. It has a preorgan itself. (See SENSES, EDUCATION OF.) paratory and a collegiate departinent. The colEARLHAM COLLEGE, at Richmond, legiate studies extend over a period of four acaInd., is controlled by a board of managers ap- demic years, of ten months each, and comprise pointed by the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends three distinct courses, as follows: (1) The agri-(orthodox). It was chartered in 1857; but a cultural course, in which prominence is given to boarding-school for instruction in the higher the sciences pertaining to agriculture; (2) The branches had been in operation in the same mechanical course, in which the principal studbuilding for several years previous. The college ies are those which relate to the mechanic arts; is supported by the income from an endowment (3) The classical course, in which the Latin and of $55,000, by tuition, and by the proceeds of a Greek languages are taught. Students completing, farm. There is a classical and a scientific course, with credit, the classical course, receive the de each of four years. The preparatory school has a gree of Bachelor of Arts; those completing the course of two years. Students may pursue selected agricultural or mechanical course, that of Bachstudies at the discretion of the faculty, but no elor of Science. The students are organized into degree is given except on the completion of one a battalion; and military, drill and inspections, or the other of the regular courses. The degrees under the direction of the professor of military are, A. B. for the classical and B. S. for the tactics, take place daily. The whole college is scientific course. Graduates may receive the under military discipline. All able-bodied stusecond degree (A. M. or M. S. according to the dents must perform a small amount of labor; previous course) either on continuing one year but this is principally required of the freshman z at the college in the satisfactory prosecution of and sophomore classes. Those who wish addi-: post-graduate studies, or, in regular course, at tional labor, are, to a limited extent, furnished the end of three years on passing a successful with work, for which they are remunerated. examination in some selected studies, or on the The cost of tuition is $36 a year in the college, presentation of a satisfactory thesis. The college and $30 in the preparatory department. Free has libraries containing over 4,000 volumes; an tuition is given to students nominated by memobservatory supplied with an equatorial telescope, bers of the state legislature, each senator having a transit instrument, and an astronomical clock; the right to nominate two, and each represen and a museum of zoology, comparative anatomy, tative three. Free tuition is also given to young geology, archæology, etc. There are from ten to men who intend to prepare for the ministry, twelve instructors, including six professors and a and who bring a certificate to that effect from principal of the preparatory department. The some church organization. In 1874-5, there number of students at present (1876) ranges from were 18 instructors, and 101 collegiate and 214 220 to 230 per year, about one-third of whom are preparatory students. The Rev. Thomas William college students. The number of graduates, in Humes, S. T. D., is (1876) the president. 1875, was 79. The first president, Prof. Barnabas C. Hobbes, was appointed in 1865; he held the office two years and was succeeded by the present incumbent, Joseph Moore, A. M. EAST TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY and State Industrial College, at Knoxville, Tenn., non-sectarian, was chartered in 1807. It received a grant of land from the United States through the state legislature, from which about $40,000 was derived; and a further endowment was obtained from the property of Blount College, which was merged in it on condition of its establishment at Knoxville. It was suspended during the civil war, and the college property was occupied by the United States army, and greatly damaged. Exercises were resumed, in 1866, in the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb. In 1869, the institution received the Congressional land grant to the state for the establishment of an agricultural and mechanical college, and the State Industrial College was organized. New college buildings have been erected, which stand on an eminence near the city. The college farm of 260 acres is about a mile from the buildings. The libraries contain about 4,000 volumes. The cabinets of geology, mineralogy, and zoology have EAST TENNESSEE WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, at Athens, Tenn., under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church was chartered, in the winter of 1866-7, as the East Tennessee Wesleyan College. The name was changed at the next session of the legisla ture. It was opened in September, 1867. The main college building is a substantial brick struc ture, 70 by 50 feet, and three stories high. The libraries contain about 1,500 volumes. There is an academic, a preparatory, and a collegiate department, the last having a classical and a scientific course. There are two terms in the year, and the cost of tuition varies from $6 to $22 per term, according to the department. Deductions are made in favor of ministers of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1874-5, there were 7 instructors, 16 collegiate students, 35 preparatory, 30 academic, and 12 music scholars, making a total, deducting repetitions, of 86; the number of alumni, up to that time, was 27. The Rev. John F. Spence, A. M., is (1876) the president. ECONOMY, School. See SCHOOL ECONOMY. ECUADOR, a republic of South America, having an area of 248,400 sq. m., and a population estimated, in 1875, at 1,850,000. Of these, ECUADOR EDUCATION 243 ature, Latin, Greek, law, medicine, etc. Special instruction is imparted in the following schools: schools of art and industry with 22 professors; a polytechnic school, with 13 professors and 59 students; a military academy, with 5 professors and 23 cadets; seven seminaries supported by the clergy, with 47 professors und 227 students; an academy of fine arts, with 2 professors and 22 students, and a conservatory of music, with 8 professors and 39 students. In 1872, a prospectus was issued for a school of obstetrics, and also for one of sculpture, to be opened in Quito, under the direction of European professors. An academy of arts and sciences was also to be opened in Quito, and the advantages of the Guayaquil Normal School were to be extended to Indian children.-See SCHMID, Encyclopädie, vol. IX., art. Südamerika; WAPPEUS, Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik, vol. 1; Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1873. 55 per cent were whites; 42 per cent Indians; the | remainder, negroes and half-breeds. The inhabitants speak the Spanish language and belong to the Roman Catholic Church, the form of worship of which is the only one tolerated in public. After the conquest of the empire of the Incas, the kingdom of Quito was made a presidency of the viceroyalty of Peru. It remained under Spanish rule up to 1822, when it became a part of the republic of Colombia; and, in 1831, became an independent republic under the name of Ecuador. Since then, it has been the scene of numerous revolutions and wars with the neighboring republics. The schools of all grades have been and still are under the control of the church, which, in this republic, has generally wielded a greater power than in any other part of South America. It was especially the aim of the conservative president Moreno (died 1875) to place the entire department of instruction under the immediate direction of the church. In 1864, it was resolved to erect a number of new schools, to be conducted by the Brothers of Christian Doctrine. The district councilors were empowered to raise in advance a part of the taxes for the support of these schools. At the same time, an agreement was entered into between the government and the Society of Jesus, according to which the latter assumed the direction of a number of colegios. How little education is valued, may be seen from the fact that the expenditure for public education, according to the annual budget, amounts to only about 20,000 pesos (1 peso $0.96.5). Primary Instruction. The schools are attended almost exclusively by the whites, the halfbreeds, and the mulattoes; while the Indians, who compose the laboring classes in the cities, do not enjoy the advantage of any education at all. The number of public schools, in 1873, was 244, of private schools, 176; and the number of schools supported by corporations was 11, making the total number of primary schools 431. The number of pupils in the public schools was 17,661, the number in private schools 3,966, and in schools supported by corporations 837, making the total number of pupils 22,464. The course of instruction in the public schools comprises reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Secondary, Superior, and Special Instruction. -There were, in 1873, six colleges (colegios nacionales) with 59 professors and 757 students, and one female college with 4 professors and 153 students. The University of Quito comprises four colegios, the Colegio de San Gregorio, founded in 1586 by the Society of Jesus, and invested with the privileges of Salamanca in 1621; the Colegio de Santo Tomas de Aquino, belonging to the Dominicans; the Colegio Mayor with which a seminary is connected, and the Colegio de San Fernando. The revenue of the university amounts to from 4,000 to 5,000 pesos, and the salaries of the professors to 3,950 pesos. In the colegios, the course of study embraces Latin, and sometimes Greek, in addition to the branches taught in the primary schools. The university comprises the Spanish language and liter course EDGEWORTH, Maria, a gifted English authoress, noted for her educational writings, was born at Hare Hatch, near Reading, England, in 1767, and died at Edgeworthstown, Ireland, in 1849. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth, who was quite celebrated both as an inventor and an author, and, to some extent, also as an educationist. He was the author, jointly with his daughter, of Practical Education (1798), and published Essays on Professional Education (1809), and a continuation of Early Lessons (1815), published originally by his daughter in 1810. In 1822, Maria Edgeworth published Rosamond, a sequel to Early Lessons, which was followed by Harry and Lucy, the Parents' Assistant (a series of juvenile tales), and Frank; subsequently also Orlandino, which appeared in Chambers's Library for Young People. It was, however, as a writer of fiction that Miss Edgeworth gained her greatest fame. Her novels acquired a high degree of popularity, which, to a considerable extent, they still retain; and they were widely circulated both in England and in the United States. They were greatly admired by her illustrious contemporaries Scott, Macaulay, and Jeffrey. The latter said, "It is impossible to read ten pages in any of her writings, without feeling, that not only as a whole, but that, in every part, they were intended to do good." "She is the author," said Edward Everett, " of works never to be forgotten; of works which can never lose their standard value as English Classics." In 1820, she completed a Memoir of her father (commenced by him), who died in 1817. There are several editions of her works, which still continue to be reprinted. EDINBURGH, University of. See Scor LAND. EDUCATION (Lat. educatio), a general and comprehensive term, including in its signification every thing that pertains to the bringing up of children, and the operation of influences and agencies designed to stimulate and direct the development of the faculties of youth by training and instruction, and thus to control the formation of their character. Hence, education has been divided into several departments, according to the class of faculties to the development and improvement of which it is directed, including (1) Physical Education (q. v.), or the education of the bodily powers; (2) Intellectual Education (q. v.), that of the mind or intellect; (3) Moral Education (q. v.), of the propensities, sentiments, will, and conscience; (4) Esthetic Education, of the taste, musical, artistic, or literary, that is, comprehending the sphere of the imagination (see ESTHETIC CULTURE); and (5) Religious or Spiritual Education, of the religious sentiments, the spiritual instincts; that is, those which concern only the soul as a spiritual and immortal essence, and its relations to the Creator, the Infinite Spirit. (See RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.) Education is also distinguished into home or domestic education (q. v.), and public or commonschool education (see PUBLIC SCHOOLS), or, considered as a means for the general enlightenment of the people, popular education; also into private education, that is, supported by private funds, and national education, provided for by the state. (See NATIONAL EDUCATION.) School education, generally called instruction, on account of the more limited character of its scope and the sphere of its operations, is distinguished, according to its grade, into (1) primary instruction, that is, the instruction given in elementary schools (such as the common schools, the primary schools of cities representing only a lower subdivision of primary instruction); (2) secondary instruction, as given in academies, high schools (middle schools); (3) superior instruction, as given in colleges and universities; (4) special instruction, as of the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the imbecile; (5) professional and technical instruction, as in art schools, law schools, medical schools, military, naval or nautical schools, theological seminaries, schools of architecture, etc., for information in regard to which see the respective titles. Education is to be carefully distinguished from instruction, the latter being only a subordinate part of the great scheme of controlling and guiding the development of a human being. To this department of education the term didactics (from the Greek word didánke, to teach) is often applied. (See DIDACTICS and INSTRUCTION.) Instruction is addressed to the intellect or understanding; while education comprehends the whole nature of man and the various agencies by means of which, in its formative state, it may be affected. Its primary object is to form the character either by stimulating its development in the normal direction, or correcting tendencies to morbid growth. In respect to the scientific principles by which its practical operations should be guided, education is a science; in relation to the proper mode of performing those operations so as to render them as effective as possible, it is an art. The science of education is a very complex one, inasmuch as its principles must be drawn from many different departments of science; superadded to which, as its own peculiar sphere of investigation, there is the great body of truths which concern the growth and development of mind and body, and which especially constitute the theory of education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. This article will embrace only the general consideration of (I) the history of education, and (II) the theory of education, with a reference to sub-titles for fuller information in regard to subordinate topics. I. History of Education.-The history of education is the history of the institutions, principles, and methods by means of which children and youth of both sexes have been educated, from the earliest period of historic times to the present day. It embraces within its scope an account of the peculiar character which education has assumed among the several nations of the globe, of the rise and development of the different methods of instruction, of the systems and labors of prominent educators, of the divisions and classes of schools, and of the rival and frequently conflicting claims of the family, the church, and the state to a share in the regulation of public instruction. Each of these subjects is treated of in this work under special titles; and the object of this general article can, therefore, only be to present a brief general view, in outline, of the subject, so as to show more clearly the relation of its several departments and topics. The earliest schools which have any claim to a place in a history of education are met with in Egypt, China, India, and Persia. In all these countries, it was the aim of the instructor to train the young so that they might become homogeneous members of the community to which they be longed, the institutions of which were to be preserved and continued by them unchanged. The claims of individuality were, at that early period, unknown; and the principle of blind and slavish submission to the constituted authorities was the basis of all education. There are, however, some marked points of difference. In China, the distinctive features of education characterize it as family education, in India as caste education, in Persia as state education, and in Egypt as priestly education. In China, every child is reared in absolute obedience to the head of the family, and every family submits as a child to the common father of all, the Emperor. The excessive veneration of ancestry makes the character of the people essentially stationary, and education assumes pre-eminently the character of mechanical training. In India, every child belongs by his birth to one particular caste; and the foremost aim of the instruction given is to teach him the rights and duties of the caste. The leading principle of Indian education is habit. In Persia, every kind of power and authority centers in the king; the children belong more to the state than to their parents, and the germs of a strictly national education may, therefore, be found in the institutions of that country. In Egypt, the priest is the chief representative of education and the only teacher. (See CHINA, Egypt, India, and PERSIA.) The classic nations of the ancient world, Greece and Rome, began a new period in the 14 EDUCATION Græcia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes 245 history of education. While the oriental child | tions of conquered Greece revealed to the Rowas taught to become a docile member of the mans a progress in art, science, and literature, family, the caste, the state, or the religion, Greece which they as yet had not even conceived, and and Rome conceived the idea of individual educa- thus awakened a thirst for higher literary culture, tion; man was not merely expected to fit himself the political and social system of the republic for the place which the family, the caste, the state, had already entered upon the period of its deor religion assigned to him, but he was to choose cline. Higher instruction, often imparted by his own vocation, and by aspiring to the highest despised slaves, was an inadequate compensation place of honor in political life, in art, or in sci- for the decline of home education; and scientific ence, to advance beyond his ancestors. Mechan- and literary culture proved utterly unable to arical training failed to satisfy those who interested rest the flood of corruption which finally overthemselves in the cause of education; the first whelmed the free institutions of Rome. The theories of education were developed, and the lines of Horace, so often quoted, have thus an harmonious development of the body and the impressive significance: mind was held up to the young as the worthiest aim of their youthful ambition. Lycurgus and Solon as lawgivers, Pythagoras and Socrates as practical educators, and Plato and Aristotle as writers on education, propounded and brought into circulation a number of new ideas, with which not only did the older nations of the ancient world have nothing to compare, but which have remained among the most potent agencies in the progressive education of mankind. A beautiful individuality was, to the Greek, the aim of life, and the ideal of education was expressed by the word kakokayadia, the beautiful and the good. The Spartan system of education constituted, to a considerable degree, an exception to this general characteristic of Greek education. The Roman's attention, from his early childhood, was directed to the affairs of a commonwealth which was constantly engaged in war, and those who reared him naturally designed to make him a practical man. The development of a practical individuality became the aim of Roman education. Less time was found for, and less interest felt in, the study of science and art; but there was a notable progress in the appreciation of home education, involving a higher regard for marriage and for a more dignified and freer position of woman in society. In every family, the mother was to begin and the father to continue the work of education, which came to be looked upon as a part of parental duty. Both parents co-operated in nursing, in the minds of their children, the feeling of patriotism; and a part of the education which the young Roman received under the parental roof was the desire to become a useful, honest, and illustrious citizen of the commonwealth. Under these influences, the will was more developed than either the emotional nature or the intellect. The only sciences which interested the Romans were almost exclusively those of a strongly utilitarian character, rhetoric, Roman history, and military science; since every noble and talented youth aspired to become a leading politician or a great general. The characteristic virtue of the ancient Romans, before the decline of the Republic, was stern and inflexible integrity in political life; but all their intellectual and moral aspirations were circumscribed by the narrow horizon of nationality, and a due regard for those outside of it appears to have been unknown to them. When an acquaintance with the institu Under the empire, the old landmarks of national education were entirely swept away. Greek tutors, and Greek high schools, at Athens and Constantinople, were expected to supply the highest instruction; but the enervated Roman was no longer able to grasp the ideal of a universal higher education, and the Roman Empire of the West was destroyed by the barbarians without having developed any systems or forms of education. As Roman education, from the foundation of the city to the downfall of the empire, was of a predominantly utilitarian character, Rome never produced any writers on education like Aristotle and Plato; yet the works of Cicero, and especially of Seneca and Quintilian, contain many suggestions of great practical value. their own A peculiar position is occupied by the Hebrews, the only theocratic people of antiquity. Their children were to be educated, not for the family or caste, not for the state or for personal distinction in art and literature, but to be the obedient servants of the God of Israel. As Jehovah was represented to the people as their sovereign, so he was their only teacher. Education was a corollary of religion. The head of a family was both its teacher and priest, and gave to the children a religious instruction; reading and writing were learned only by the children of the wealthy. The first organized schools were the schools of the prophets for training expounders of the law of Jehovah; after the exile, the rabbis organized a number of schools, to which children from their 5th year could be sent. The instruction was for a long time entirely oral, and at first also limited to the tenets of the Jewish religion; but gradually the course of instruction was enlarged, and, during the middle ages, many Jewish schools obtained a high reputation for the number of scholars whom they educated. The advent of Christianity was a great turning-point in the history of education, no less than in the general history of mankind. For a considerable length of time this was far from being recognized. To the educated and wealthy Romans, especially to those holding a high rank in scholarship and literature, the Christians appeared as a humble, insignificant, and despised sect. The energies of the Christians themselves were so greatly absorbed in the effort to live up |