it.

As long ago as 1683, J. J. Beecher published an account of his having not only produced gas in England from common coal, but in Holland, from peat or turf.*

ORGANIC REMAINS IN THE CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD.

Insects.-Professor Agassiz remarks that, "with regard to insects, their existence has been already ascertained in the coal formation, which, in my opinion, is much more intimately connected with the paleozoic than with the secondary formations, by the whole of its organic characters."

Entomostraca, of small size, abound in certain coal formations, and they are found after that period in a multitude of deposits.

Trilobites, which are unquestionably the most ancient type of the class crustacea, appear under the strangest and most varied forms, from their first occurrence in the most ancient palæozoic formations. This type, however, does not go beyond the period of the coal formation, when it is replaced by gigantic Entomostraca, which are in some degree the precursors of the Macrura.

Fishes.-"When I commenced the publication of my researches on fossil fishes, I was acquainted with no species more ancient than that of the coal formation, and even with a very small number of these. Now, not only is the list of species and even of genera proper to these formations considerably increased, but the more ancient deposits are daily increasing more and more the number of types to add to our catalogues. The strata of the Devonian system, and those of the Silurian system, have in their turn furnished a contingent, which continually goes on increasing."

We cannot here resist the desire to pursue our quotations from the same Professor's Fossil Fauna of the precursor of the great carboniferous formation, the old red sandstone, which also contains the most ancient deposits of coal that are yet known. "The ichthyological fauna of the old red sandstone appears in such extraordinary and fantastical forms, that the most trifling remains of the beings which lived at that epoch, cannot fail to interest the attention of the naturalist. In no other formation do we find an assemblage of fishes, deviating so strikingly from all that we are acquainted with in our own days. The study of no other fauna requires so many years before we become sufficiently familiarized with its types to venture to classify them, and fix their relations to those of other creations.

Comparisons with the remains of anterior formations would have been impossible; because it is in the old red sandstone that we meet, for the first time, with a complete ichthyological fauna. The Silurian formation, it is true, contains some remains of fishes; but hitherto they have been so rare, and the number of species so limited, that it may be safely affirmed that it is only with the Devonian formation that fishes have really acquired some importance among other fos

History of Fossil Fuel, p. 405.

sils; or, at least, that the part they performed in nature becomes appreciable."

"What first strikes one, on studying the ancient deposits is, that fishes are the only representatives of the branch vertebrata which exist in the old red sandstone, or even in the coal formation; in so much that we have a good right to call the epoch when these formations were deposited, the reign of fishes.

"The consideration that the fishes of the old red sandstone really represent the embryonic age of the reign of fishes, has even been with me a powerful motive to undertake the examination of these ancient animal remains, as my first monograph, forming a continuation of my researches; since it was here there existed evident facts to prove the truths of this great law of the development of all living beings."

In concluding the introductory article, from whence these few brief but comprehensive passages have been selected, M. Agassiz remarks, that viewing this assemblage of fossil fishes of the old red sandstone, as a simple group of divers, but contemporary species, and apart from all systematic considerations, we are struck with the great diversity which the species really present. "Who would have expected that we should ever find, in spaces so limited as those which have hitherto been explored, above a hundred species of fossil fishes, in the Devonian system alone; that is to say, in a stage of our formations which was believed a few years ago to be confined to the British Islands, and to which, in consequence, only a local value was assigned; and yet, all other things remaining equal, the ichthyological fauna which this formation contains, is as considerable as that which inhabits the coast of Europe; and even although the species of the old red sandstone do not belong to so great a number of families as the living species, they are not less varied in their forms. and general aspect, nor less curious in their external characters and organization, nor less different from each other in size, and the degree of locomotive power with which they were doubtless endowed."*

Foot-marks discovered in the coal-measures of Pennsylvania.-In Vol. II. of the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 30th of December, 1845, is an account of fossil foot prints in the sandstone of the coal measures of Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, by Dr. A. T. King. Those particularly described are reptilian foot-marks, and occur about three miles from Greensburg, and others at Derry, twenty-seven miles from the same town, which seem chiefly to have been made by ruminant mammals.

These sites have subsequently been visited by Mr. Lyell, and form the subject of a preliminary article, in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London.†

* From Professor Agassiz, "Monographie des poissons fossiles du vieux grès rouge." Article in Edinburgh New Phil. Journal, July, 1846, p. 17.

The number of species of fossil fishes, in the entire series of formations, are now known to M. Agassiz, to be not less than two thousand.

† Journal, Vol. II., p. 418, 1846.

The stone on which the Greensburg impressions occur, is a sandstone which rises up from beneath the well-known and widely extended main or Pittsburg ten feet coal seam, whose outcrop is worked in this neighbourhood. The slabs of sandstone are separated by layers of a fine unctuous clay, such as would be admirably fitted to receive the most delicate and faithful impressions of the feet of animals treading upon it.

Twenty-two of these Cheirotherian impressions were discovered by Dr. King, on the under sides of the sandstone slabs, standing out in relief. They occur in pairs; each pair consisting of a hind and fore foot. There are two rows of these tracks which are parallel, or have been formed the one by the right fore and hind feet, the other by the left; the toes turning one set to the right, and the others to the left; and the distances between the successive footsteps being about the same throughout.

Mr. Lyell concurs with Dr. King as to the authenticity of these foot-marks, and conceives that an important truth has been brought to light, through the exertions of the latter gentleman;-that the land on which forests of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron grew, gave support also to large air-breathing quadrupeds. Few geologists, he observes, will now be prepared to believe that this single species or genus of reptiles, or that one class only of vertebrated animals, had possession of the islands and continents, on which so widely-extended and magnificent a vegetation flourished.

With regard to the other supposed impressions of various animals, they appear to be artificially formed; probably by the Indians who occupied the country, and occur under entirely different circumstances to the reptilian tracks near Greensburg. Dr. King agrees with Mr. Lyell in abandoning as spurious all the imprints except those of the large reptile. These reptilian tracks occur in one locality only; no others have yet been found in the same place, nor under similar circumstances elsewhere.

Respecting the traces of organic forms, other than those of vegetables, in the coal formation, we are precluded from entering into details which do not strictly comport with the plan of this work. The shales and argillaceous ore-beds of the coal measures, in most coal-fields, exhibit numerous remains of conchifera and mollusca. In several instances traces of fishes also occur, as we have previously noticed.

In the newer coal formation of Nova Scotia, Mr. Dawson discovered scales of fishes, and traces of shells. But the most interesting discovery in that quarter, is the foot-marks of unknown animals, impressed upon the sandstones. They appear to be those of birds, such for instance as are left by the common sand piper when running over a firm sandy shore. The foot-marks of another animal were subsequently observed, and in frequent instances these were partially obliterated by rain-marks. Many beds are represented as rippled, rain-marked, or covered with worm-tracks, all indicative of a littoral origin. The footsteps of another animal, considered to be a reptile

by Mr. Owen, were observed by Mr. Logan. This detection of animal tracks on the coal measures, is announced as the first instance we have obtained of the probable existence of air-breathing land animals, at any period anterior to the new red sandstone.

Dr. A. T. King, in 1845, discovered, as we have already remarked, undoubted reptilian impressions of footsteps in the coal measures of Pennsylvania, proving, as subsequently observed by Mr. Lyell, the existence of large air-breathing quadrupeds, on the same soil which produced the forests of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron.

In relation to these interesting indications of the early inhabitants of the earth, we may be allowed to cite an eloquent authority. "It is strange that, in a thin bed of fire clay, occurring between two masses of sandstone, we should thus have convincing, but unexpected, evidence preserved concerning some of the earth's inhabitants, at this early period. The ripple-mark, the worm-track, the scratching of a small crab on the sand, and even the impression of the rain drops, so distinct as to indicate the direction of the wind at the time of the shower, these, and the foot-prints of the bird and the reptile, are all stereotyped, and offer an evidence which no argument can gainsay,-no prejudice resist,-concerning the natural history of a very ancient period of the earth's history.

But the waves that made that ripple-mark have long ceased to wash those shores; for ages has the surface, then exposed, been concealed under great thicknessess of strata; the worm and the crab have left no solid fragment to speak to their form or structure; the bird has left no bone that has yet been discovered; the fragments of the reptile are small, imperfect, and extremely rare. Still, enough is known to determine the fact, and that fact is the more interesting and valuable from the very circumstances under which it is presented."*

SECTION IV.

MINING CASUALTIES AND PROVIDENT INSTITUTIONS.

ON the mining casualties or accidents, and on the provident institutions, relief funds, benefit societies, caisses de prévoyance, caisses de secours, and similar institutions which have been established for the relief of working miners, in the principal coal-producing coun

tries.

During the preparation of the present work, we had collected numerous statistical facts on a branch of our subject which appeared fraught with unusual interest, namely, that of the casualties to which

* Ansted's Picturesque Sketches of Canada.

the coal miner's occupation is especially subjected, and the means which in late years, have been adopted to afford him aid under the many attendant circumstances of privation, sickness and distress.

We had originally distributed these notes under their local heads, but soon perceived that that arrangement was not likely to prove the most useful or convenient; and that the whole matter would be more appropriately disposed in a distinct section. The topic had acquired additional interest in proportion to the accession of information, until it appeared to us that, in a philanthropical sense, few were more entitled to our calm consideration. By no government, probably, has its investigation been carried to a more praiseworthy extent than by the Belgian, and with this conviction, no apology seems necessary for adverting to the opinions and experience of some of her most enlightened official writers.

It will be borne in mind that these investigations are especially directed to the case of the operatives engaged in the extraction of mineral fuel, and not in the mining generally of the metals. There appears to be a wide difference in the character of the two classes of employment. Each has its contingent difficulties, each its attendant dangers, but superadded to these are the peculiar, the instantaneous, the uncontrollable risks, in the daily operations of the coal miner. Of all descriptions of subterranean undertakings, it is conceded, that of coal mining is accompanied with the most frequent dangers to the workman; and the most appalling of these dangers arise from causes over which he possesses the smallest control, and which do not attend the extraction of the metalliferous ores. It is this sad experience and the urgent necessity for alleviating its calamitous results, which have called into exercise the aid of the economist; has awakened the sympathy of the philanthropist, has appealed to the aid of the rich and the protection of the powerful, and has united, in common cause, the proprietor, the explorer, and the working labourer.

Influenced by considerations suggested by these and some other obvious circumstances, we have concentrated under one section, and proceed to exhibit in the following preliminary chapter, the data we have collected on the subject of mining casualties and miner's provident institutions, commencing, as we feel bound, with those of Belgium.

BELGIUM.

On the 19th December, 1841, M. Desmaissières, minister of public works, made a report to the king, on the provident or relief funds, "caisses de secours," of working miners, established in Belgium.* We proceed to trace the substance of that excellent report, with the addition of some subsequent notes from the papers of M. Auguste Visscherst and others.

Rapport sur les caisses de prévoyance en faveur des ouvriers mineurs.

Notice sur l'établissement, en Belgique, de caisses de prévoyance, Bruxelles, February,