the elements of character,-physical, mental, and moral. There are propensities to restrain and subdue as well as powers to bring out and direct. There are tendencies to good to cultivate and encourage; and there are, from the first, those of an opposite character to repress or extinguish. There is not only the intelligence to be stimulated and guided, there is the will to be subdued, -to be made subject, not only to the authority of the educator, but to the conscience of the educated. Doubtless, there are principles sufficiently comprehensive to embrace all these considerations, and to afford a safe foundation for practical methods and rules sufficiently minute to reach every case, however peculiar or eccentric; but what we wish here especially to lay down, is the important, fundamental law, that education, claiming to be scientific, and not a mere mechanical empiricism, must take cognizance of all these elements of human character, not only in their average condition and degree, but in those marked diversities which constitute individual character. (See EDUCATION.) According to this principle, boys and girls can never properly be subjected to precisely the same processes of education, because their natures are very different, -physically, mentally, and morally. This fact is, however, not necessarily in conflict with coeducation; indeed, it may be an argument in favor of it. Children of both sexes may be trained in the same family, and instructed in the same school or class; but the wise parent and the skillful teacher will often have to make a careful discrimination in his treatment of them as boys or girls. The ancients had very different educational systems for the two sexes, for two reasons: (1) because of their diverse natures, and (2) because of their different spheres of life. Nearly all that we read of ancient education concerns boys; but we are not to suppose, for this reason, that the education of the girls was overlooked. That of the boys was public, and was a matter of public concern, for the welfare and the safety of the state depended upon it; but that of the girls exclusively belonged to the social circle, and was, therefore, strictly private. In the Cyropædia of Xenophon, we have a beautiful picture of the education of boys among the Persians, fictitious in some particulars, without doubt, but illustrative of ancient manners and views as to the objects of such an education. The public good was the exclusive end of this system; and as the education of the future citizens for their duties in peace and war was the most important concern of the state, this duty was not left to the parents, by whom it might be neglected or improperly performed, but was the subject of special governmental regulations. Boys were all brought up in common, according to a uniform system, which prescribed the kind of food, the times of eating, the nature and duration of physical exercises, and the modes of punishment. By a very plain and simple diet, the boys were accustomed to strict temperance; and such modes of bodily exercise were employed as would inure them to the hardships and fatigues of war. In their schools, the chief object was to teach the pupils justice and virtue, with the view that it is much easier to prevent the commission of crimes by proper early education, than by severity of punishment at a more advanced period of life. The Spartan system of educating boys resembled that of the Persians as described by Xenophon, except that it was deficient in some of the finer moral elements; and in its physical characteristics was, perhaps, more severe. (See SPARTA.) For an account of the education of boys among the Athenians, see ATHENS. Among the Romans, the education of boys was under the guidance of the father; though much of it, particularly in its earliest stages, was under the superintendence of the mother. She attended not only to their physical wants, but took pains to form their language, their ideas, their moral sentiments, and their religious feelings. Of this we have an example in Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi. Later, the boy was furnished with a custos, or paedagogus, who sometimes instructed him in gymnastics, or accompanied him to the exercises, or to the theatre, being responsible for his safety. This office, in a Roman family, was performed by one of the older slaves, and its functions continued until the age of manhood was reached. Some distinguished Romans, the elder Cato for example, taught their own sons; but usually teachers were especially employed to give instruction in reading, writing, calculation, rhetoric, etc. A teacher of this kind was called ludi magister. Youths were, for the space of a year, exercised in arms in the Campus Martius, and in swimming in the Tiber. (See ROME.) The most celebrated writer on the education of boys among the Romans is Quintilian, whose great work Institutiones Oratoriæ, although designed to explain the education necessary for the complete orator, yet treats likewise of the early training and instruction of the boy. Thus he says: "Many are opposed to the public schools, for the reason that the children acquire bad habits there, and also because the teacher can bestow more attention upon one than upon many; but these objections against the good old regulations are not valid, since there are also many evils connected with private instruction; and, moreover, if boys were not early rendered effeminate, they would not be so easily corrupted in the public schools. The instruction in these schools is to be preferred, especially for the future orator, in order that he may accustom himself to the multitude, and be stimulated by competition." Quintilian enjoined particularly upon the teacher to make himself acquainted with the disposition and capacity (natura et ingenium) of his pupils, and to treat every one according to his peculiar traits. Other Roman writers treated of the education of youth. Varro wrote Capys, aut de liberis educandis, which, together with most of this author's numerous treatises, has perished. The requirements of modern civilization, as well as the usages of modern social life, appear to dictate a separate education for boys, after the elementary stages, both on account of the diversity in the mental and physical constitution of boys and girls, and because of the difference in the spheres of life which they are to occupy. Here, however, there is great difference of opinion, many, and particularly females themselves In modern times, most of the special treatises on education refer particularly to the training and instruction of boys. This is true of Montaigne, Milton, and Locke. The special education of girls has engaged the attention of but few writers. Very many, therefore, of the principles and rules laid down are based upon the peculiar disposition and character of boys. Milton's definition of education is limited to the one sex, its scope being" to fit a man to perform justly, skill-contending for the breaking down of all distincfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war"; and his various directions as to studies, physical exercises, etc., all have an exclusive application to boys, who he says, among other things, "must be also practiced in all the locks and gripes of wrestling, wherein Englishmen were wont to excel, as need may often be in fight to tug, to grapple, and to close." Fencing he particularly approves: "The exercise which I commend first, is the exact use of their weapon, to guard, and to strike safely with edge or point; this will keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in breath, is also the likeliest means to make them grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage, which being tempered with seasonable lectures and precepts to them of true fortitude and patience, will turn into a native and heroic valor, and make them hate the cowardice of doing wrong." Most writers on education have recognized the necessity of discriminating between the sexes in education. "From the beginning of the eighth year," says Schwarz, "the two sexes require, in almost every respect, a different education. The principal concern of boys are the studies of school, alternating with bodily exercise. Their amusements are, at an early age, of the more active kind: chasing the butterfly, and scouring the plain with other boys; at a later age, they should engage in pedestrian excursions and bold undertakings, and enjoy the cheerful company of their equals; taking care, however, that their playmates be of the proper character, and that their hearts be cultivated for what is noble and generous. This vigilant supervision should follow them to the latter years of youth, and guard them against all bad company. Their propensity to imitate their older associates, which, among other evil practices, so often leads to the early habit of smoking, and the like, should be enlisted on the side of what is good and praiseworthy, by constantly managing their entire education in accordance with sound principles." The same writer also observes very justly: Although boys should be chiefly educated by men. and girls by women, the two sexes should unite in the education of both boys and girls. The boy requires the mild and gentle treatment of the mother, in order that his sensibility may not become callous; and, besides, he will always need some intercourse with persons of the other sex, both young and adult, as it is found in families, because otherwise he will contract habits of rudeness, without developing a susceptibility for the finer feelings of humanity." tions of the kind, and throwing open all grades BRAIDWOOD, Thomas, a noted teacher of deaf-mutes, was born in Scotland in 1715, and died at Hackney, near London, in 1806. He kept an establishment at Dumbiedikes, near Edinburgh, which was the first regular school for deaf-mutes in Great Britain. It is this institution that Dr. Johnson praised so highly, and in which, as recorded by Boswell, he gave one of his sesquipedalia verba, to test the skill of the pupils in articulation. (See BOSWELL'S Life of Johnson.) Subsequently, Braidwood kept a school at Hackney, near London, in which he continued till his death, and which was afterward maintained by his widow and grand-children till 1816. He kept his methods of instruction secret as far as possible; but the chief feature of his system was articulation and reading from the lip. The manual alphabet was likewise employed. An account of his Edinburgh school was published by Francis Green of Boston, the father of one of Braidwood's pupils, in a work entitled Vox oculis subjecta (London, 1783). BRAILLE, Louis, the inventor of a tangible point system for the instruction of the blind, was born near Paris in 1809, and died in 1852. He lost his sight at a very early age, and was instructed in the institute for the blind at Paris. He was highly distinguished for his intelligence, and the rapidity with which he accomplished himself in various branches of knowledge, particularly music; and besides being a skillful player upon several other instruments, was reckoned among the best organists of his time. At the age of eighteen, he became a professor in the Royal Institute; and while in that position (about 1839), devised his method of writing, based on the point system of M. Charles Barbier, which he also applied to musical notation. Le système Braille was introduced in most of the continental schools. A new system of tangible point writing and printing has, quite recently, been devised by William B. Wait, superintendent of the New York institution for the blind, in which the letters which occur oftenest, such as e, a, and i, are represented by the smallest number of points. See WAIT'S New York System of Tangible Musical Notation and Point Writing and Printing (New York, 1873). BRAIN, the principal organ of the nervous system, and the fountain of nervous energy to the whole body. It is the seat of consciousness, feeling, and intellect, and also the recipient of all impressions made on any part of the nervous system. The brain being the organ especially concerned in education, its hygiene is an important subject for the attention of the teacher. The development of this organ is very rapid. The average weight of the brain in adults is about 48 ounces, and this limit is generally attained at the age of thirteen years. No organ is, from the time of birth, so regularly and so incessantly exercised as the brain. During the period of infancy, nature herself superintends this process; and unless her care is interfered with through the ignorance, folly, or neglect of the mother or nurse, it results in a healthy growth and development. When the age of infancy is passed, and the child is surrendered to the educator, intelligence and skill may accomplish much benefit in regulating the cerebral development; or a want of skill and intelligence may do, and often does, very great injury. Exercise is the natural instrument by which all the bodily organs are brought to a maturity of growth and strength, and by which they are kept in a condition of health. In applying this principle, the teacher should see that the exercise be proper, (1) as to its kind, (2) as to its degree, (3) as to its direction; and in all these respects, that it is adapted to the age and peculiar physical condition of the child to be educated. The same process will not answer for all. The teacher who wishes to do good, whose aim is really to educate, will study the external indications of temperament, of bodily health and disease, and also of cerebral structure; and will, as far as possible, regulate his operations accordingly. The brain is exercised both by thought and feeling; being the seat of various faculties, both mental and moral, its activities are aroused by whatever is addressed to the intellect, the conscience, the "The first step," emotions, or the propensities. says Combe, "towards establishing the regular exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the mental faculties in youth; and the second is to place the individual habitually in circumstances demanding the discharge of useful and important duties." The healthy development of the brain may be prevented (1) by wrong exercise, (2) by being overtasked, (3) by bad physical conditions, (4) by bad moral conditions. Overstrained or too long continued attention, excessive tasks from books, committed to memory under the pressure of fear, long confinement in close rooms, and hence the want of properly oxygenated air, will impair the functions of the brain, and lay the foundation, not only of future disease, but perhaps of future imbecility. So, too, when subjected to harsh discipline, to unkind treatment, to a moral atmosphere vitiated by the irritability; ill-humor, and moroseness of the parent or teacher, the brain of the child loses even its natural or normal physical condition; and its growth is necessarily morbid. (See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.) BRAZIL, an empire of South America, having an area of 3,288,100 sq. m., and a population, according to the census of 1872, of 9,700,187. It is one of the most important states of the world, being exceeded, in extent, only by the Russian, British, and Chinese empires, and by the United States; while, in regard to population, it ranks as the 13th state. The established religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic; but according to Art. 5. of the constitution, all other religions are tolerated, "with their domestic or private forms of worship, in buildings erected for this purpose, but without the exterior form of temples." No person can be persecuted for religious acts or motives. The number of Protestants is estimated at about 30,000. The majority of them are Germans, who have about 20 churches and are united in a synod. Besides the German Protestants, there are English and French Protestant churches; and the Presbyterians of the United States have established a small number of congregations among the native Brazilian population. The national language is the Portuguese. The number of German and Swiss colonies was, in 1869, about 50, with about 40,000 German-speaking settlers. whites number probably one third of the population, the remaining two-thirds being made up of mixed races, civilized and savage Indians, and Africans, which last form the most numerous unmixed race in the empire. The number of savage Indians is estimated at from 250,000 to 500,000. They are divided into a large number of different tribes and speak many different dialects, though all understand the lingoa geral, which was formed by the priests, traders, and slave-hunters, on the basis of the Tupi-Guarani (language of the native tribes Tupi and Guaraní.) The Indians being found unprofitable as slaves, recourse was had to the importation of negroes from Africa. These were treated, until 1850 with almost unparalleled cruelty, though eman The cipation was always encouraged, and no man was debarred by his color from reaching any position in church or state. A law, passed Sept. 28., 1871, provided for the gradual abolition of slavery. intention to introduce compulsory instruction and to establish two national normal schools, of which there is as yet a great want, as the few institutions of the kind existing in the provinces can be regarded as only a small beginning of real normal instruction. Brazil was discovered and taken possession of for the king of Portugal, in 1500, and from that time remained under the control of Portugal, Before being allowed to teach, all persons have with a short interruption, until 1822, when it to pass both a written and an oral examination. was declared an independent empire, and Dom The questions for the former are arranged by the Pedro I. was proclaimed its first emperor. Ac- council of studies at the beginning of every cording to the constitution of 1824, public ele- school year. This council consists of the general mentary instruction is gratuitous, and placed inspector of schools, of the two rectors of the under the control of the state. Private schools, Collegio de Pedro II., and four elective counlike all others, are subject to the superintendence cilors. There are also 5 assessors, 1 clerk with 4 of the state government. Public instruction is assistants, and 17 delegates of parishes, of whom graded, as in other countries, into primary, 11 belong to the city of Rio de Janeiro.-Pupils secondary, and superior or scientific instruction. are admitted into the public schools from the 5th Public instruction, like ecclesiastical affairs, be- to the 15th year of age. The school hours are longs to the department of the minister of the mostly from 8 to 11 A. M., and 3 to 5 P. M. interior. Secondary and primary instruction, The school-books, which must be approved by are, however, chiefly regulated by the provincial the inspector general, are to a great extent transassemblies, and placed under the administra-lations from the French and the English; among tion of the presidents of the provinces. As the them is a translation of Peter Parley's Universal Brazilian provinces enjoy a high degree of self- History. The school is opened every day with government, there is but little uniformity in the a short prayer. Corporal punishment is not organization, but generally the provinces have permitted. Every school is annually examined modeled their schools after those of the capital. by a committee consisting of a delegate of the As long as Brazil was a Portuguese colony, district as president, the teacher, and a third little was done for public instruction; but Dom person appointed by the inspector general. The Pedro I., as soon as he had ascended the throne, five most successful scholars receive rewards, showed great interest in the promotion of consisting of books. The president of the compublic education, and established a number of mittee makes a report on the examination to the new schools. Still more was done by his son and inspector general. successor, Pedro II. (since 1831); but the provisions of the constitution of 1824 were never fully carried out until 1851, when the two chambers passed a law authorizing the government to reorganize the systems of higher instruction throughout the empire, and those of secondary and primary instruction in the capital. In accordance with this law, the minister of the interior, Pedreiro de Couto Ferraz, promulgated, Feb. 14.. 1854, the organic provisions which had been drafted by De Almeida Roza, and which have remained the basis of everything that has since been accomplished in Brazil for the promotion of public instruction. Brazil has, like Portugal, public schools of the first and second (higher) grade. The course of instruction in the former embraces religion, ethics, reading and writing, the elements of the Portuguese grammar and of arithmetic, with legal weights and measures. In the female schools, instruction is also given in embroidery and other kinds of needle-work. In the schools of the second grade, the gospels are read and explained, and instruction is given in biblical and universal history, geography, especially that of Brazil, arithmetic, the elements of geometry and engineering, drawing, music and gymnastics. The number of schools is as yet entirely insufficient, and as the salaries paid are generally very small, there is a great want of competent teachers. The country owes many important reforms to the zealous minister of the interior, Correa de Oliveira (1871-1875), who has announced his According to the report of the minister of public instruction to the legislature for 1872, the number of public primary schools in the capital was 111, with 6,149 scholars, namely 3,900 boys and 2,249 girls. The number of public primary schools in the provinces is 3,491, namely 2,343 for boys, and 1148 for girls, attended by 106,705 scholars, namely 75,594 boys, 29,096 girls, and 2,015 whose sex is not stated. The number of private primary schools is 711, with 19,162 pupils. The total sum expended annually in the provinces for public instruction was 3,362,687 milreis (about $1,836,000). The model secondary school of Brazil is the Collegio de Pedro II. at Rio, which was organized in 1854. It consists of 2 separate institutions, one of which is a boarding and the other a day school, each with its own rector. The number of students was 351; of whom 221 were day scholars and 130 boarders. Besides this college, there were in the city of Rio de Janeiro 60 private secondary schools,―30 for boys, 25 for girls, and 5 for both sexes. The course of instruction in these institutions varies somewhat, but in most of them the following subjects are taught: Portuguese. Latin, French, English, natural philosophy, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, geography, rhetoric, and poetry. The number of public secondary institutions in the provinces was 107, with 2,994 scholars, namely 2,916 boys, and 78 girls. The number of private institutions was 123, with an attendance of 5.089 scholars,3,852 boys and 1,237 girls. The secondary institutions in the province are under the control | and its use in naming objects; after which, of the provincial administration, and there is on through these channels of communication, she that account a great lack of uniformity in their learned the qualities, uses, and relations of obcourses of instruction and their entire admin- jects, as well as their names. Subsequently, she istration. The government of Brazil intends, learned to write and to play upon the piano, in however, to establish, as soon as practicable, state which she became very skillful, and acquired also colleges on a uniform plan. For the German a dexterity in needle-work and in the performcolonies in the province of São Paulo a "Ger- ance of many household duties. Her moral and inan lyceum" has been established; most of the religious education was more difficult; but this secondary schools resemble, however, the French also was successfully accomplished, so that, in lyceums. 1873, Dr. Howe could say of her: "She enjoys life quite as much as most persons do. She reads whatever books she finds in raised print, but especially the Bible. She makes much of her own clothing; and can run a sewing machine. She seems happiest when she can find some person who knows the finger alphabet, and can sit and gossip with her about acquaintances, the news, and general matters. Her moral sense is well developed." This case possesses peculiar value in showing what can be accomplished by a devoted teacher despite the greatest natural obstacles to the acquisition of knowledge; and is a most encouraging example of the result of patience and address on the part of the educator. Brazil has as yet no university; but only two law faculties at Recife (Pernambuco) and São Paulo, with an aggregate number of 542 students, and two medical faculties at Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, with an aggregate number of 868 students. The establishment of a complete university at Rio de Janeiro is projected, and is urgently recommended by the minister of public instruction in his annual reports to the legislature. Theological faculties are connected with nearly all the episcopal seminaries. Of other special schools, there are at the capital a business college (with 36 students in 1872), an institution for the blind (with 19 pupils), an institution for deafmutes (with 19 pupils); the Central School (scientific school), with which a military school is connected, a naval school and a naval artillery school, an academy of fine arts (with 187 students), a conservatory of music (with 139 students), and an imperial lyceum of arts and industry, belonging to the society for promoting fine arts, a sort of polytechnic school (with 1,233 students). In the provinces, there are several agricultural and industrial schools. See LE ROY, in SCHMID'S Realencyclopädie, vol. IX., pp. 869-920; KIDDER and FLETCHER, Brazil and the Brazilians (8th edit., Boston 1866); AGASSIZ, A Journey in Brazil (1868), WAPPEUS, Das Kaiserreich Brasilien (Leipsic, 1871); Annual reports of the minister of public instruction of Brazil to the legislature. See BARNARD'S American Journal of Education, vol. XI, s. v. Samuel G. Howe. BRITISH COLUMBIA, a province of the Dominion of Canada, having an area of about 233,000 sq. m., and a population, in 1871, of 8,576 whites, 462 negroes, and 1548 Chinese; total, 10,586, exclusive of Indians, estimated at 35,000 to 40,000. It was created a distinct colonial government by an act of parliament passed Aug. 2., 1858. In 1866, Vancouver İsland was united with British Columbia under one government; and, in 1871, British Columbia was admitted into the Dominion of Canada. Although a common school ordinance was passed in 1869 and amended in 1870, the real foundation of the educational system in this province was the public school act of 1872. This BRIDGMAN, Laura, a remarkable blind law is an adaptation of the Ontario act, and its deaf-mute, born at Hanover, N. H., in 1829, is enactment was advised by the superintendent. particularly noted as the subject of a very suc- himself a teacher trained in the Toronto normal cessful course of training and instruction, by school. Amendments were made to the first act means of which she was taught to read, write, in 1873, and a further act was passed in 1874. and converse with others, and enabled to acquire The act provides for an annual grant of $40,000 a knowledge of many useful branches of learn- as a public-school fund, and for the appointment ing, besides becoming highly accomplished in by the government of six persons, to hold office music. She lost her sight and hearing at the during its pleasure, as a board of education; also age of two years; and when about eight years of an experienced person to be superintendent of old, became an innate of the Perkins institution education, who shall be ex officio chairman of the for the blind in Boston, then under the care of Dr. board. School districts are established and Samuel G. Howe, so noted for his benevolence and altered by the government, which also makes devoted philanthropy. Finding that she possessed grants for teachers' salaries, the erection and fura high degree of intelligence, he resolved, despite nishing of school-houses, and current expenses, the many discouragements of the case, to attempt and establishes other schools, without a district, her education. Through the sense of touch, he where needed. The board of education prescribes first associated, by constant repetition, objects a uniform series of text-books to be used, and with their names in relief letters, and when a provides for their supply to the schools, makes few of these were learned and the relation thor- general regulations, examines teachers and grants oughly established, he taught her to recognize certificates, appoints teachers and fixes their the separate letters composing each word, and salaries, purchases and distributes school apthen to construct the words herself from the let-paratus, and may establish high schools. The ters. She was then taught the manual alphabet, superintendent visits each school once a year, |