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questions, are, whether the two sexes should be educated separately or conjointly, to what extent the same course of instruction should be prescribed for both, whether special studies should be begun at this age, or whether the entire course should be obligatory for all the children of a school. (See Co-EDUCATION OF the SEXES.)

The age of youth extends from the beginning of puberty to the complete development of sexuality, or from the fourteenth to about the twentyfirst year of age. At this time the growth of the body is completed; young men and women become aware of their special duties of life and of the difference in the careers upon which they are respectively to enter. The time of study is drawing to its close; the entrance into active life is at hand. Among the lower classes of society, this transition occurs at the beginning of this age; and the only increase of knowledge that is accessible to most persons of these classes must be derived from evening schools, public lectures, and reading; while those of the wealthier classes, and all who wish to fit themselves for any of the learned professions, now enter upon the special studies of those professions, or finish the general studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of this period, if not earlier, the preparations for entering public life are completed, or an actual entrance into life begins. See SCHWARZ, Erziehungslehre; SCHLEIERMACHER, Erziehungslehre, edited by PLATZ; BENEKE, Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre; HERBART, Umriss pädagogischer Vorlesungen.

AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, an eminent educator of the middle ages, was born in August 1443 (or 1442) at Baflo, near Groningen, in Holland. His original name was Huysmann, which, after the custom of his time, he exchanged for a Latin name. After his native province. Friesland, he is also sometimes called Frisius. He studied at the universities of Louvain, Paris, and Ferrara; and, after returning to his native country, distinguished himself greatly by introducing the study of Greek into the countries north of the Alps. In 1483, he accepted an invitation from his friend, Bishop Dalberg of Worms, and ered lectures alternately at Heidelberg and at Worms. He died in Heidelberg, Oct. 28., 1485. His works, which are not very numerous, are written in Latin. His principal work De inventione dialectica attacks the scholastic philosophy of the age. In an educational point of view, his epistle to Barbirianus in Antwerp, the so-called Epistola de formando studio, is of special importance. At the time of its publication, it was regarded as a compendium of the pedagogical views of the German humanists. Its prime object was to advise his friend as to the continuation of his studies. Agricola recommended philosophy, by which term he understood also ethics and physics, and, in general, the entire range of natural science, as the study most deserving his friend's attention; he represents it as the only road to true knowledge and perfect felicity, while the other sciences could procure only a doubtful happiness. The Latin language was

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES

regarded at that time as necessary for this study, but Agricola advised his friend always to reproduce what he had learned in German. Three things were needed for pursuing any study: (1) To understand what had been learned; (2) To retain what had been understood; (3) To derive advantage from what had been learned. The first was obtained by application, the second was the gift of memory, the third could only be acquired by practice. While the works left by Agricola would alone not suffice to assign to him a prominent place among the educators of the middle ages, it appears from the writings of his contemporaries that his personal influence was very great, and that, in fact, he was regarded as second to none but his friend Reuchlin. His letters to Reuchlin, to Alexander Hegius, an excellent educator, who founded the famous school of Deventer, to Antonius Liber of Soest, a very zealous humanist, who, after fruitless efforts to establish a school at Emmerich, Kampen, and Amsterdam, at length succeeded at Alkmaar, where he died in 1514, and to other contemporaries, contain a large amount of information on the educational movements of his times. complete edition of the works of Agricola has been published by Alardus, of Amsterdam (Cologne, 1539).—See SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik, 11, 452; RAUMER, Geschichte der Pädagogik, trans. in BARNARD'S German Educational Reformers; GEIGER, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, 1, 151-156; TRESLING, Vita et merita Rudolphi Agricole (Groningen, 1830); HALLAM's Literature of Europe.

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AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is only within the last fourteen years that any general and systematic effort has been made in the United States to furnish facilities for acquiring a thorough scientific and practical education in agriculture. In 1862, Congress gave to the several states and territories land scrip to the amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and representative in Congress, provided that each state or territory, claiming the benefit of this act, should, within five years from its passage. deliv-"provide not less than one college, which should receive for its endowment, support, and maintenance the interest of all moneys derived from the sale of the aforesaid scrip or lands." It was further required that "the leading object" of these colleges" should be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes, in the several pursuits and professions of life." The main supporter of this law was the Hon. Justin S. Morrill, senator from Vermont. Of all laws enacted, either state or national, for the advancement of higher education, no one has ever been productive of such fruitful results. The originators and framers of this law, “builded better than they knew." The tabulated statement below, while it shows a vast amount accomplished in a short space of time, cannot, of

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increased population shall furnish a demand for
the products of the soil at prices sufficiently re-
munerative to induce many trained and educated
men to embark in agriculture.

necessity, give more than a faint idea of what
has been done in advancing agricultural edu-
cation in the single direction of a systematic
and thorough collegiate training. Looking back
over the last ten years, we notice that those It is difficult to give an exact statement of the
engaged in agriculture have made marvelous present condition of agricultural colleges, since
progress in general information, as well as in they are only a part of colleges or universities
technical subjects having a direct bearing upon devoted also to teaching mechanic arts, and scien-
their special calling. This has been largely tific and classical studies more or less germane to
brought about by the munificent endowments of agriculture. We find that, in this department, and
Congress. For as soon as the act had become a in that of mechanics,there are at present about 300
law, numerous energetic and far-seeing men professors and teachers. So far as reported, 361
brought the matter prominently before the students have graduated after a full course in
several state legislatures, setting forth the great agriculture. According to the usual proportion
benefits that would arise from an acceptance of of freshmen to graduates, this would indicate
the donation. Some strenuously opposed its ac- that 1,444 had pursued the course for a longer or
ceptance, as it would add heavy burdens, in order a shorter period. The number of graduates who
to furnish buildings etc., to those already im- during their course have, to use the phraseology
posed by the war; and others opposed it, believ- of the act of Congress endowing these institu-
ing the whole scheme to be chimerical and im- tions, pursued studies "relating to agriculture
practicable. Through these discussions, which and the mechanic arts," is 669; making the total
have not yet wholly ceased, much valuable in- number who have entered these courses, for a
formation has been disseminated; and the effect longer or a shorter period, 2,676. The number
has been, to arouse thoroughly the agricultural of students, as far as reported, in all the depart-
classes to a sense of their rights and duties. ments of the institutions named, is 6,907, of
These earnest and continued discussions have whom 715 are ladies, and 2,889 are receiving
developed latent talents, and excited a desire for instruction in military tactics. The minimum cost
information among the farmers, that is, as yet, of board-usually in clubs-is $1.25 per week;
only partially gratified. They have made it pos- the maximum cost, $5.00; and the average,
sible to publish and sustain numerous agricult-$3.00. The cost of room rent per term ranges
ural journals with regular contributions from
the pen of many of the ablest writers on the
practical and scientific subjects of the day. They
have created such a demand for agricultural
literature, that a large proportion of our relig-
ious and political journals devote more or less
space to the subject. These are but a few of the
incidental results of this wise and munificent act
of Congress; and they are none the less real or
beneficial, although they cannot be tabulated or
set forth in long columns of figures. Such rapid
strides have been made in some directions within
the last few years, that a chemist and a laboratory
have become a necessary adjunct to many of the
agricultural industries,-notably to that of the
manufacture of cheese, butter, and commercial
fertilizers. Up to 1865, the agricultural college
of Lansing, Mich., was the only one in the United
States in which students could pursue a college
course arranged and adapted to meet the wants
of those who might desire, in after years, to en-
gage in agriculture. Since that time, some thirty
colleges have been organized-about one half of
them from parts of universities which are
largely devoted "to teaching such branches of
learning as are related to agriculture and the
mechanic arts." The donation of lands by Con-
gress did not furnish endowment sufficient fully
to equip and man these numerous institutions;
but it afforded the means to lay the firm founda-
tions upon which, aided by state and individual
munificence, have been reared many noble insti-
tutions of learning, which are doing an important
and much-needed work. We can hardly con-
ceive of the grand and important position these
institutions are to occupy when the wants of an

from $1.33 to $12.00. In all but two or three
institutions, some provision is made for a greater
or less number of free scholarships, and several
offer free tuition for all. As a general rule, no
pains have been spared by these colleges to fur-
nish all the facilities for pursuing a college course
at the least possible expense. Manual labor is re-
quired in 11 of the colleges; in the others, it is
optional. The price paid for students' labor
ranges from 5 to 18 cents per hour. State ap-
propriations have been made of nearly one and
a half million of dollars, which have been largely
used for erecting buildings. The amount of pri-
vate donations it is impossible to arrive at ac-
curately, but they cannot fall short of $5,000,000.
The late Ezra Cornell gave $700,000 to the uni-
versity that bears his name, and the total amount
of private donations to this single institution is
not less than $1,400,000, of which the colleges of
agriculture and the mechanic arts have received
their due proportion. The number and equipment
of laboratories, workshops, etc., in the colleges
that serve, directly or indirectly, to illustrate and
teach subjects relating to agriculture, are as fol-
lows: mechanical laboratories or workshops, 10,
all of which are furnished with tools for work-
ing in iron and wood, and several with engines,
planers, turning-lathes, drilling-machines, saws,
and other necessary but less expensive tools;
physical laboratories, 16, most of which are
furnished with apparatus for illustrating the sub-
jects of mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat,
acoustics, and optics. All, with one or two ex-
ceptions, have well equipped chemical labarato-
ries; and several of them furnish facilities for in-
struction in chemistry not excelled in any other

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institutions in the United States. Nine anatomical, 12 geological, and 15 botanical laboratories are already equipped for student practice. Eight of these colleges have greenhouses in operation; most of them have drafting-rooms, with the necessary tables and models for illustrating the subjects taught. A large amount of practice in drawing is, moreover, required in several of the branches related to agriculture. Free-hand drawing, as yet, has not been largely introduced. Some ten colleges have large collections of models of farm implements and machinery; engravings, photographs, charts, and drawings; together with numerous specimens of grains, grasses, and other plants; geological and mineralogical specimens; collections of insects and skeletons of domestic and other animals; all constituting what might be called an agricultural museum, though usually kept in separate rooms for the sake of convenience. Ten of these institutions offer one or more prizes for good The propriety and expediency of the Congresscholarship; six report, through their leading sional grant by means of which these instituofficer, that the effect of offering such prizes tions have been established, have been seriously appears to be "good;" six consider it "bad" called in question; indeed, it has been held that two, "doubtful;" one, that it depends on cir- the function of government should be strictly cumstances;" one, that it is "a healthy stimu- confined to the promotion of elementary instruclant to be carefully used;" and one, non con- tion. In 1873, President Eliot, of Harvard stat." At least twelve appear to have kept care- College, took strong ground against the endowful accounts of farm receipts and expenditures; ment, by the Government, of institutions for subut since we have no reports of the amount of perior or technical instruction, and was susincrease in the valuations of farm-stock, imple-tained in this view by President McCosh and ments, etc., it is impossible to say whether the farms are worked at a profit or a loss. The total gross receipts of twelve farms reported, for 1874. are $64,329.60, or an average of $5,360.80 por farm. The total expenditures for experiments, during the same year, on eight of these farms. are $8,143.26. This indicates that farm experiments are not, as yet, carried on to any great extent; and the reason for this is, doubtless, a lack of means rather than of disposition. Every professor of agriculture fully appreciates the benefit, not only to his class but to himself as well, of extended and systematically conducted experiments. They are, indeed, effective but costly auxiliaries to the class-room lectures. There is a constantly increasing tendency toward using the farm and its appliances, regardless of profit or loss, in order to teach and illustrate the principles of agriculture, rather than as has too often been the case-using it simply as a means of increasing the common fund. The aggregate number of acres used for general and experimental farming by twenty of these colleges is 5,081; added to which there are 142 acres of orchard, 92 acres of vegetable garden, 29 acres of small-fruit garden, 1,360 acres of native timber, 438 acres of planted timber, and 580 acres used as college grounds. Though we find that the planted timber is about six acres to each hundred of arable land,-which is certainly a very creditable showing yet forestry is taught to but a limited extent, there being no distinctive course yet marked out in that branch of study. We are far behind some of the European countries in our facilities and methods for

training students in the art and practice of the care, preservation, and planting of forests: As a part of the equipment for illustration and practice on these farms, are found some 500 head of neat-cattle, 236 of which are thorough-breds, representing nine distinct breeds. The horses and mules number 129, only 3 of which are thorough-breds; the total number of sheep is 233, of which 58 are pure bloods of various breeds; the swine exceed 500, including about 400 pure-bred animals, representing nearly all of the well-established breeds. This aggregation of laboratories, workshops, museums, greenhouses, orchards, gardens, farms, and domestic animals is furnished and provided for the express purpose of affording, not only the means for illustrating the subjects taught, but actual experience and skill in those processes which require that the judgment, eye, and hand, as well as the intellect, should be trained.

others. At the session of the National Educational Association, held at Elmira, N. Y., in August, 1873, this question was considerably discussed, and the principle underlying the endowment of the agricultural colleges was ably vindicated in a paper by Prof. G. W. Atherton, of New Jersey, entitled The Relation of the General Government to Education, in which he said, "These younger institutions have a larger average of students, by more than one-tenth. than the long-established colleges, and are fairly occupying with them the field of higher education. In an important sense, however, they are not the rivals of the older colleges. Their graduates, to only a limited extent, enter the learned professions. They become engineers, farmers, inechanics, architects. They labor with hand and brain. They become leaders and organizers of labor, and thus precisely fulfill the intent of Congress when it designed these institutions to furnish a liberal and practical education to the industrial classes."" Prof. Atkinson, on the same occasion, took similar ground. "What," said he, "is the government domain but the property of the people, and to what higher use can the people put it than to promote the higher as well as the lower education of all the people? We have in this country no aristocracy of education-not one education, as in the old country. for the masses,' and another and higher one for the privileged minority. The republican principle is, the best education for all-the best and highest education for the masses.' That is the only principle on which republican institutions can be founded." The words of Washington

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES

fully justify this principle: "In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened."

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ileges; (20) farm accounts; (21) the manufacture, preservation, and application of farm manures; (22) the rotation of crops; (23) farm machinery and tools; (24) rural law. The subjects of instruction, as far as possible, are illustrated by diagrams, cuts, and models. The lectures are supplemented by field practice, varying from 5 to 15 hours per week, and sometimes even more. Visits are frequently made to adjoining farms and herds. The lectures and practice usually extend through at least one year. The foregoing statement shows conclusively that there has been an earnest, systematic, and successful effort to promote the education of the rural classes; and it may be truthfully said, that, within the last ten years, no other department of education has made an equal degree of advancement. The first agricultural school in Europe was Switzerland. It flourished for more than 30 years under the excellent direction of Wehrli, and educated nearly 3,000 pupils. The success of Hofwyl led to the establishment of other schools of the same character; and, at present, such schools are found in every country of Europe. They are very numerous in Germany and Austria, and are divided into two classes,-a lower, called Ackerbauschule, intended chiefly to give practical instruction in agriculture, and a higher, called Landwirthschaftsschule, in which the whole science of agriculture, with all its auxil iary sciences, is taught. The most celebrated among the schools of a higher class are those at Hohenheim (established in 1818), Schleisheim (1822), Jena (1826), Eldena (1835), Wiesbaden (1836), Tharand (1829), Regenwalde (1842), Poppelsdorf (1846), Proskau (1847). UngarischAltenburg (1818). Special chairs of agriculture have been established at the universities of Berlin, Halle, Göttingen, Munich, Leipsic, Giessen, and Jena; and instruction in agriculture is also given in the polytechnic schools. England has a Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, founded in 1849; and in Scotland, the University of Edinburgh has a chair of agriculture, and special lectures are given in a college at Aberdeen. Ireland has two agricultural schools of a higher grade.-one at Templemoyle, founded in 1827; and the other at Glasnevin, founded in 1838. France has three higher agricultural schools and one school of forestry. In Italy, there are two agricultural schools of a higher grade, at Milan and Portici. Russia, besides a large number of schools of agriculture and forestry of a lower grade, has an Agricultural Institute at Gorygorezk, founded in 1836, an Institute of Agriculture and Forestry at New Alexandria, and an Academy of Agriculture and Forestry at Petrovskoi. See LOEBE, Die landwirthschaftlichen Lehranstalten Europa's (Stuttgart, 1849); SCHULZ, Die theoretisch-praktische Ackerbauschule (Jena, 1869).

Course of Study.-The full course of four years in agriculture comprises the following subjects: (In some cases, a few are omitted or a few added; but those mentioned will serve to show what studies are now generally considered applicable and necessary in this course)—(1) algebra; (2) solid, plane, and analytical geometry, trigo- | nometry, and the calculus; (3) rhetoric and composition, declamation and English literature; (4) drawing, free-hand and linear; (5) surveying and mapping; (6) book-keeping, especially applied to farm accounts; (7) botany, general and agricultural; (8) horticulture, floriculture, and general, market, and landscape gardening; (9) history, which may comprise one or more of the follow-founded, in 1804, by Fellenberg, at Hofwyl in ing: American, English, Roman, French, agricultural, and history of civilization; (10) physiology, hygiene, and comparative anatomy, (11) zoölogy and entomology; (12) veterinary anatomy, physiology, medicine, and surgery; (13) chemistry, general and agricultural; (14) French and German, usually extending through not less than two or three terms (when both languages are not required, German is usually preferred); (15) physics, geology, mineralogy, and meteorology (16) constitutional and municipal law and political economy; (17) mechanics applied to agriculture; (18) strength and preservation of materials; (19) rural architecture. The subjects treated of under the head of applied or practical | agriculture-with slight changes-are as follows: (1) stock-breeding, including the laws of likeness or similarity, variation and atavism; the influence on the subsequent progeny of the dam, by the first fruitful connection, in-and-in and miscellaneous breeding, the government of sex, the relative influence of sire and dam on the progeny, pedigrees and their value, the history, formation, and characteristics of breeds and families; (2) the selection, breeding, feeding, and general management of domestic animals, each species and race being treated of separately; (3) annual nutrition; (4) the education, shoeing, driving, and care of the horse; (5) drains, their material and construction, and the effect of drainage on health, soil, climate, and plants; (6) soils.-their classification, character, mechanical division, and preparation for the cereals and grasses; (7) the preparation and selection of seed; (8) sowing, planting, cultivating, and harvesting; (9) the nutrition of plants; (10) insect enemies and fungi; (11) the culture of roots and their value as food for man and beast; (12) forage plants, their culture, use, and value; (13) weeds, their habit of growth, time of seeding, and mode of eradication; (14) the effects of air, water, heat, and light, on the fertility of the soil and the growth of plants; (15) the care, cultivation, and use of natural and artificial forests; (16) fields, their number, shape, and size; (17) fences, - their material, construction, and durability; (18) farm yards and buildings; (19) water priv

In the following tabular exhibit, will be found a full statement of the location, condition, resources, etc., of all the agricultural colleges and departments in the United States.

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Ark. Indus. University,
Jan. 1871....
Agr. & Mechan. Coll. of
Alabama, March 1872.
Univ. of California, Fall
of 1869..
Yale Coll. Sheffield
Scientific School, 1846..
Delaware College....
Florida State Agr. Coll.
Univ. of Coll. of Agr.
Georgia. & Mech. Arts
Ill. Indus. University,
March 1868...
(Perdue Univ., Septem-
ber 16th, 1874...
Iowa State Agr. Coll. '68
Kansas State Agr. Coll.
Agr. & Mechan. Coll. of
Kentucky, 1866.....

Maine State Coll. of Agr.
& Mech. Arts, 1869..
Maryland Agr. Coll., '68
Mass. Inst. of Technol- Į
ogy

Mass. Agr. College, Oc-
tober 2d, 1867.
(Mich. State Agr. Coll.,
February 1855..
Univ. of Minn., 1868....
Univ. of Mississippi....
Univ. of Mo., 1840...
Agr. College, organized
1870...

Agr. Coll. of Nebraska,
June 1872

Prep. Department
Dartmouth Coll.-N. H.

Coll. of Agr. & Mech.
Arts....

Rutgers College, 1770...

Cornell University, 1868 Univ. of North Carolina (Ohio Agr. & Mech. College, 1873. Corvallis College, August, 1868.. Pennsylvania State College, February 1859..) Brown University.. (Claflin University,State)

Agr. Coll. & Mech. Ins.) Tenn. Agr. Coll., 1869... Agr. & Mech. Coll. of Texas

Univ. of Vermont and
State Agr. Coll., 1865.
Hampton Normal & Agr.
Institution

Virginia Agr. & Mech.
College, 1872
West Virginia Univ.....
Univ. of Wisconsin, 1868

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No distinct degree for these departments. Graduated as Ph. B. **No Report.

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