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present to the eye of the student the analyzed sentence, so as to show clearly the relation of its parts; and in the rudimental stages of the ineraction, these are, without doubt, of consider able utility: but they should not be carried so far as to present to the student a confused mass of loops fines curves, or disjointed phrases. far more difficult to disentangle than to analyze, with out any such aid, the most involved sentence. All such devices, it must be remembered, are only auxiliaries to the mind's natural operations, and cannot at all supersede them. Neither should the exercise of analyzing sentences be allowed to degenerate into the mechanical application of its most simple requirements. As the student advances he will be able to omit more and more of the routine, until he reaches a stage of progress, at which the general structure of the sentence-its component clauses and their relations, will be all that he need observe or state. When judiciously and rationally employe 1. sentential analysis must engender a very important quality of mind, and greatly con luce to clear thinking, intelligent.critical rea ling.and accurate terse expression. See MULLIGAN, Grammaticol Structure of the English Language N.Y., 1852; GOOLD Brows, Grammar of English Granmars, and Institutes of English Grammar, with KIDDLE's Analysis; WELCH, Analysis of the English Sentence; GREENE, Analysis of the English Language; CLARK, Normal Grammer of the English Language; CROTTENDEN, Philosophy of Sentential Language; MARCH, Parsing and Analysis; ANDREWS and STODDARD, Latin Grammar.

ANALYSIS, Mathematical. See

EMATICS.

ANDRE.E

or subtract fractions by finding a common denominator. If the object of the instruction given were, ex insively, to make the pupil expert in ailing and subtracting fractions, the synthetic metrod wonai perhaps have some advantage over the analytic: but, since an important part of this object is to train the mind. the analytic method is greatly to be preferred; for (1) it stimu- . lates the mind to greater activity, (2) it teaches it how to investigate for itself, and to discover truth, and 3 it gives it a much clearer knowledge of the fundamental principles involved in the subject taught. Whether the analytic method should be employed and to what extent, is o be determined by a consideration of the nature of the subject taught, and the degree of advancement of the student. In the higher stages of education, much time would be lost by rigorously following this method; and if, in the more clementary stages, the pupil's mind has been choroughly trained in this way, it will not be necessary to adhere to it when he comes to study the higher branches. At every stage, and in every branch of instruction, however, there will be occasion for the use of both analysis and synthesis ; and the skill and judgment of the teacher must he exercised. at every step. to determine which is the appropriate method to be employed. — Sce Palmer. T› Teacher's Manual (Boston, 1840).

ANDREÆ, Johann Valentin, a German clergyman and educator, was born at Herrenberg in Wirtemberg, in 1586, and died in Stutgart. in 1654. After filling several eccieiastical positions in the Lutheran church of his country, he became, in 1650, Superintendent MATH-General at Fabenhausen, and in 1634 at Adelberg. He was a stern and influential opponent of the principles which the Lutheran orthodoxy, at that time, endeavored to carry out in education. He denounced, in particular, the mechanical method of teaching Latin, which then prevailed, as well as the equally mechanical method of catechetical instruction in the publie schools; and he is known, in the history of German education, by the reforms which he introduced in these studies. He insisted that no orders should be given to the pupils in a foreign language, that they should not be required to learn any thing which they did not understand, and that no explanations should be given to them exceeding their comprehension, or not enlisting their interest. His views on pedagogical and didactical reform are fully developed in the work Reipublicæ Christian Descriptio (1619), which sketches the constitution of an ideal Christian republic, giving due prominence to the organization of education. Another work, written in his youth, Idea Bona Institutionis, is no longer extant. Andrea was an intimate friend of Amos Comenius, whose work, Didactica Magna, he earnestly recommended. The autobiography of Andreæ in Latin has been published by Rheinwald (Berlin 1849). See SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik, II, 338; HOSSBACH, Andrea und sein Zeitalter (Berlin, 1830); HENKE in Deutsche Allgemeine Biographie, art. Andreæ.

ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACHING. This is the method used by the teacher when he presents to his pupils composite truths or facts, and by means of analysis shows the principles involved, or leads the mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for himself. In this way he teaches principles which the pupil is to apply to the elucidation of many diverse problems. In the synthetic method, the teacher begins with principles, explains their meaning, and shows how they are to be applied. Thus, suppose the pupil is to be taught how to add and subtract fractions. According to the analytic method, the fractions to be operated upon are presented to the pupil's mind, and he is shown, first the difficulty involved, and secondly, how to surmount this difficulty, by (1) finding a common denominator, and (2) by changing the numerator so that the fractions with the common denominator may have the sume value as the given fractions. Then the method of allition or subtraction becomes obvious. In this way learning the principle himself by analysis, the pupil is enabled to construct a general rule, and apply it to any given case. In the synth tic method, the pupil would be taught in the first place the nature and use of a common de sominator, then the method of reducing fraetions to a common denominator, and then to ad

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as in Latin and Greek. The uses of the modes are also a matter of great nicety. The body of rules for the use of the subjunctive rivals that for the Latin subjunctive. Most of the difficulties of English syntax find their solution in the fact that they are relics of idioms which were gen

The laws of sound, including prosody, are noteworthy. The vowel sounds are very susceptible to the influence of adjacent letters. A root a will change to ae, ea, e, o, as one or another letter follows it; and so with the other vowels. It is in this way that the plural of man comes to be men, from mani. And, in general, the changes of the original letters of an English word in inflection are to be explained from the phonetic laws of Anglo-Saxon. The verse, like that of the other early Teutonic nations, is accentual, and marks off the lines by alliteration. The art of poetry was highly cultivated; the scop, or poet, was highly honored, and it was a disgrace to any man not to be able to sing in his turn at the feasts. We have specimens of the old ballad epic reaching far back into heathen antiquity, the Iliad and Odyssey of the North. There is also a body of Christian poetry in similar verse and in somewhat similar style.

ANGLO-SAXON is the current name for the mother-tongue of the modern English language. During the 5th and 6th centuries, tribes from the shores of the North Sea,- Angle, Saxons, Jutes, and others, made conquests and settlements in England. They spoke Low German dialects, and after they were converted to Chris-eral, and are easily understood, in Anglo-Saxon. tianity. Roman alphabetic writing was introduced, and a single literary language came into use through the whole nation. This language they commonly called Anglise, or Englise, i. e. English, but since the 17th century it has been called Anglo-Saron. its best period was the reign of Alfred the Great. A. D. 871-901. In the careful study of its literary remains, it is necessary to distinguish three dialects, the Northumbrian, the West Saxon, and the Kentish; and three periods, the early, the middle, an 1 the late; but in this article, our attention will be mainly directed to classic Anglo-Saxon, which is West Saxon of the middle period. This literary language was cultivated mainly by rewriting in it, for the use of the people, the best Latin works of the time on religion, history, and philosophy. King Alfred and his learned assistants thus prepared Gregory's Pastorale; the General History of Orosius, the Ecclesiastical History of Bede, the Consolations of Philosophy of Boethius; and these were followed by many other translations in prose and verse. The language in this way attained accuracy and ease in following Latin compositions, and a higher general cultivation than any other Teutonic tongue of the time. It is a very pure Low German speech, closely akin to the Friesic, Old Saxon, and Dutch. These Low German tongues are most nearly related, on the one side, to High German, and on the other to Scandinavian; and more remotely to Latin, Greek, Slavic, Sanskrit, and the other IndoEuropean or Aryan languages. The AngloSaxon is to be classed with the older inflected or synthetic languages, like the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, rather than with the analytic, or littleinflected, like French and English. The noun has five cases, and three genders; and four declensions growing out of differences in the stems. The adjective is declined as in German, in a definite and an indefinite declension, with two numbers, three genders, and five cases. The personal pronouns are also fully declined in three numbers, having special forms for the dual number in the first and second persons. There are two great classes of verbs, one of which forms the past tense by reduplication, and the other by composition with dide, did. In the first class are five conjugations, arranged according to their root vowels, and from these come most of what are called the irregular verbs of modern English; our regular verbs come from the sixth conjugation. Our suffixes of derivation, our prepositions, and conjunctions are also in great part Anglo-Saxon. The syntax is of course that of a highly inflected language. Some verbs govern an accusative, some a dative or instrumental, some a genitive, some two accusatives, some an accusative and dative, and so on

From this sketch of the language and its literature it will appear, that whatever disciplinary advantages are to be gained from the study of an inflected tongue as such, or of a literature introducing us to a new world of thought and manners, are to be gained as well from the study of Anglo-Saxon as of Latin or Greek. It has, however, additional and more intimate uses to those who speak and write English, and have English for their foster-mother in literature. It is the mother of our mother-tongue, and the knowledge of it helps us at every step in our study of English grammar and literature, and is essential to any really advanced scholarly knowledge of either. We may, therefore, find a place for Anglo-Saxon in all grades of schools in which language and literature are studied, using it in different ways at different stages of progress.

The study of language must always occupy a chief place in any comprehensive educational scheme. It has two great divisions: (1) as the study of the art of communication, (2) as the study of the record of human thought. Without the art of communication, man cannot live; without access to the accumulated thought of the race, any generation would be savages; without an introduction to the emotions and ideals of the great and noble which are embodied in literature, any generation would lapse toward moral idiocy.

Common Schools. The Anglo-Saxon is no longer spoken, and it would be hardly worth while to learn to speak it; but in learning to speak and write English we need to know much of it. The power to speak well is founded on familiarity with choice idioms and synonyms. These are learned in connection with the history of the formation and meanings of words, and especially in English, of our Anglo-Saxon words.

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There are several school etymologies which afford manuals of practice in the study and use of the Anglo-Saxon elements of our speech, among which may be mentioned: Hand-Book of AngloSaxon Root-Words (New York); Hand-Book of Anglo-Saxon Derivatives (New York); GIBBS's Teutonic Etymology (New Haven); SARGENT'S School Manual of English Etymology (Phila.). In these books the pupil is told the meanings of certain Anglo-Saxon words, prefixes, and suffixes, and of English words which are derived from them; and exercises are arranged in which to acquire skill in the ready use of this knowledge. They are intended for the Common School. HALDEMAN'S Affixes (Phila.) is a treasury of this branch of learning.

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study. A lesson a day during the last school
term skillfully directed to the most frequent ex-
amples in which this knowledge comes into use,
would perhaps answer the most pressing necessi-
ties of the common school teacher. Twice that
time would be a meager allowance to lay the
foundation of the education of an accomplished
high-school teacher in this department. For this
study may be used MARCH'S Comparative Gram-
mar of the Anglo-Saxon Language (New York);
- this contains a full syntax; R. MORRIS'S His-
torical Outlines of English Accidence (London);
HADLEY'S Brief History of the English Lan-
guage, in Webster's Dictionary (1865).

In the High School or Academy, Anglo-Saxon is to be read and studied not only as explanatory of English, but for its own structure- and literature, just as Latin, Greek, and German are studied. Manuals for this study in its simplest form contain brief grammars, selections for reading, notes, and vocabulary. Such books are S. M. SHUTE'S Anglo-Saxon Manual (N. Y.); BARNES'S Anglo-Saxon Delectus (London); VERNON'S Guide to the Anglo-Saxon Tongue (London); CARPENTER'S Introduction to the study of the Anglo-Saxon Language (Boston). Similar to these, but containing more apparatus for a comparative study of the language and philological notes, are MARCH'S Introduction to the Anglo-Saxon Language (N. Y.); MORRIS'S Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar, containing Accidence and Word Forma-glish, tion (London).

Normal Schools.-There are no persons to whom this study is more important, than to teachers of English grammar. The explanations of the forms of words are all to be sought in it. The origin and meaning of the possessive ending 's, of the plural endings, of the endings for gender, of the tense forms and other forms of the verb, the adverbial endings, the prepositions, may at any time be demanded of the teacher. Pupils will ask him whether John's book is a contraction of John his book; how comes geese to be the plural of goose, and men the plural of man; how comes lady to be the feminine of lord; how comes I have loved to express the perfect tense; what does the to mean when you say to be, or not to be, that is the question, and so on without end. But such questions cannot be answered without knowing Anglo-Saxon. It is the same with questions of syntax. Almost all difficulties grow out of Anglo-Saxon idioms, or find their solution in the forms of that speech. Teachers who know nothing of the history of the language puzzle themselves infinitely with subtle reasonings to prove that expressions must be parsed in one way or another, when a glance at an AngloSaxon grammar would settle the matter in a moment. No teacher can safely pronounce on any such mooted questions of our language without knowing the Anglo-Saxon forms. No normal school ought to send out graduates from its grammar department wholly ignorant of this

Colleges and Universities. The earliest important use of Anglo-Saxon in our schools was that introduced by President Jefferson into the University of Virginia, in 1825. He thought that it was a rude form of colloquial English disguised by bad spelling, and that the whole grammatical system as given in the text-books was a series of "aberrations into which our great AngloSaxon leader, Dr. Hickes, has been seduced by too much regard to the structure of the Greek and Latin languages." "Remove," he says," the obstacles of uncouth spelling and unfamiliar character, and there would be little more difficulty in understanding an Anglo-Saxon writer than Burns' poems." He proposed to have textbooks prepared, in which the original AngloSaxon should be accompanied by a parallel column containing the same matter respelt into modern English or forms like the modern Enand by explanations of the meaning of unusual words. These he thought would be few, so that the whole tongue might be mastered with great ease and rapidity. These views of the language are all wrong; the best Anglo-Saxon manuscripts are really spelt on a more careful and more scientific system than our modern English. The language, really, is an inflected language, like Latin and Greek, having its caseendings and other inflective forms from the same original as those sister-speeches. Of course, no one has carried out Mr. Jefferson's plan literally. One of its suggestions has, however, been embodied in MARCH's Introduction to AngloSaxon (New York). An early division of the prose is prepared in parallel pages of AngloSaxon, and a sort of English made by giving for each Anglo-Saxon word the corresponding English word to which it has given rise, if there be any, or a kindred English word. The following is a specimen:

Se leornere segeth: We cildru biddath the, eâlâ lâreów, thaet thú tâece ûs sprecan on Ledene gereorde rihte, fortham ungelaerede we sindon, and gewemmedlice wè sprecath.

(The learner saith: We childer bid 2 thee, O-lo lore-master, that thou teach us to-speak in Latin i-rerd 3 right, for-that un-i-lered we are, and i-wemmedly we speak.)

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1 children (Chaucer). 2 pray. slanguage (Halliwell). 4 because. unlearned (Stratmann). 6 corruptly, from wem, a spot.

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ANGLO-SAXON

An extract from the poetry of Caedmon is prepared in the same manner. It will be seen that this affords an easy introduction to a general knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, and is a grateful means of enabling beginners who wish only to read in an off-hand fashion, to get a fair knowledge of the contents of AngloSaxon books, especially of simple prose, and makes a good beginning for grammatical and philological study.

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and substance, as thorough and scientific study is given in this way to a portion of the AngloSaxon as can be given to Greek or Latin with the ordinary college text-books. The study is pursued in this way at several of the American colleges. In others, rapid reading for literary purposes prevails. The text-books used are MARCH'S Grammar and Reader, as above, in which are also bibliographical notes, and a sketch of the literature; SHUTE'S Anglo-Saxon Manual; KLIPSTEIN's Anglo-Saxon Grammar (New York); CORSON'S Anglo-Saxon and Early English (New York); THORPE'S Analecta Anglo-Saxonica (London); CARPENTER's Introduction to AngloSaxon (Boston).

of 1874—5.

There has been a great increase of Anglo-Saxon study in our colleges within the last ten years. From being almost unknown, and wholly unprovided with any suitable apparatus, it has become a common study, and a number of manuals have been published for beginners in it, both in America Nowhere else is this study pursued as in and Europe. There is a difference of opinion America. It is almost wholly neglected in the among our educators as to whether it should be English universities. Nine German universities studied early in the college course and in connec-announced lectures on it for the winter semester tion with English simply, or later and in connection with Latin, Greek, and German; whether it Dictionaries of Anglo-Saxon are BOSWORTH'S should be mainly a literary study, for reading and (London); ETTMUELLER'S Lexicon Anglo-saxonithe vocabulary, or chiefly a grammatical and cum (Quedlinburg & Leipsic, 1851),—an etymophilological study. The earliest of the later text-logical dictionary. Other valuable works of books announced for publication was a Compara- reference or for further reading are THORPE'S tive Grammar by F. A. MARCH, Prof. of the Beowulf, with translation, notes, and glosEnglish Language and Comparative Philology in sary (London); GREIN'S Beowulf, with GerLafayette College. This was primarily intended man glossary (Cassel, 1867); HEYNE'S Beowulf, for the use of a Junior Class in college, who with German notes and glossary (Paderborn, have already studied Latin, Greek, French, 1873); THORPE'S Gospels (London); BOSWORTH'S and German, according to a progressive plan by Four Versions of the Gospels (London); E. which each language is compared with the others METZNER'S Englische Grammatik (Berlin, 1860 in its grammatical forms and analogous words, so -65); C. F. Koch's Historische Grammatik that when beginning Anglo-Saxon, the students der englischen Sprache (Weimar, 1863-71); are good comparative grammarians within the MARSH'S English Language, and its Early range of the above languages. It is the plan of Literature (New York, 1862); MORLEY'S English this grammar to compare the Anglo-Saxon with Writers (London, 1867); WRIGHT's Biog. Brit. Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Old Saxon, Old Literaria (London, 1842); ETTMUELLER'S Scopas Frisic, Icelandic, and Old High German. Gen- and Boceras (Qued. & Leips., 1850); C. W. M. eral principles of phonology, enough to cover GREIN'S Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie all the changes of sound, are first laid down, (Cassel & Göttingen, 1857-1864); GREIN'S Biand then parallel paradigms of the inflection|bliothek der angelsächsischen Prosa (Cassel, forms in these languages are given, and the Anglo-Saxon explained under their guidance. A comparative syntax is also given. The author in this way introduces the student to the methods of the modern science of language in connection with the study of Anglo-Saxon, so ANSELM, of Canterbury, a saint and that our mother-tongue may share the honors doctor of the Roman Catholic Church, is reof this new science. This grammar was followed garded as one of the founders of scholasticism. by a Reader, which is prepared with notes (See SCHOLASTICISM.) He was born at Aosta, in adapted to lead to and aid in the study of the Piedmont, about 1033, entered, after a dissolute grammar. These books have been since studied youth, the Benedictine order in 1060, succeeded, at Lafayette College in the manner here sug-in 1063, Lanfranc as prior of the monastery of gested. A class goes slowly on with the reader and grammar together, studying, word by word, letter by letter, the relations of the forms to those of other languages, and the laws of change which govern their history, and trying to ground all in the laws of the mind and of the organs of speech. Besides this grammatical study, how ever, the substance of the selections is carefully studied, including choice extracts from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Beda giving the noticeable events of history, Anglo-Saxon laws, and extracts from the great poets. In method

1872); GREIN'S Sprachschatz der angelsächsischen Dichter (Cassel & Göttingen. 1864); and articles in APPLETON'S New American Cyclopædia, and JOHNSON'S New Universal Cyclopædia.

Bec in Normandy, and, in 1079, became abbot. He was, in 1093, consecrated archbishop of Canterbury, and died in 1109. The school of Bec became, through him, the most famous of the age. He endeavored to show the entire harmony between faith and science, and was the first to develop what is called the ontological argument to prove the existence of God. He was a determined and effective opponent of the discipline which at that time prevailed in the monasteries, and which even allowed abbots to cudgel disobedient monks. A fine education," he once

66

32

ANTIOCH COLLEGE

APHORISMS

is an instinctive dislike. Such a feeling is apt to exist on a first acquaintance only, and is often dismissed subsequently as a prejudice. No person can succeed in teaching children, who possesses an unfortunate temperament or mental constitution of this kind, and such a one should seek other employment; since all real success in practical education, depending as it does upon inspiring the minds of pupils with love, esteem, and confidence, must be founded upon the opposite quality, sympathy. (See SYMPATHY.)

replied to an abbot, who complained of the inefficiency of his educational efforts, "which educates man to animals! Because they receive from you no mark of love and kindness, they mistrust you, suspect you of malignity and hatred, and can only face you with lowered looks and averted eyes." An edition of Anselm's complete works, also containing his life, by his friend and companion Eadmer, was published, in 1744, in Venice (Opera omnia, 2 vols.).—See MŒULER, Anselm's Leben und Schriften (Tüb. Quartalschrift, 1826, 1827); HASSE, Anselm von Canterbury, APHORISMS, Educational. The expres(2 vols., 1843-52; an abridged English trans- sion of general truths in the form of aphorisms lation by TURNER, London, 1860); CH. DE REMU- has some advantages over more extended stateSAT, St. Anselme de Cantorbéry (Paris, 1852). ments, particularly in their brevity, pithiness, ANTIOCH COLLEGE, at Yellow Springs, and point. The understanding grasps them Green Co., Ohio, was incorporated in 1852. Its as the keys to practical rules, and as guides in buildings, which were erected at a cost of conduct; and the memory more readily retains $150,000, have a pleasant and healthful situa- them. It is not, however, to the uninformed, tion. This institution is designed to afford the untrained mind, that such expressions are of the means of a useful education, at small expense, to greatest use, but to those who, having already acboth sexes. Its charter forbids the teaching of quired by experience and reflection a good store sectarian dogmas; but the instruction is given of facts and ideas upon the subject treated, are in consonance with the spirit of liberal Chris- glad to find them concentrated, as it were, in tianity. Its first president was Horace Mann these small and convenient verbal repositories. (1853-59). He was succeeded by Thomas No subject is richer in such aphorisms than Hill, D. D. (1859-62), George W. Hosmer, education; and to no one will their study and D. D. (1866—72); and since then, the college has acquisition prove more serviceable than to the been under the direction of Prof. Edward Orton practical teacher, eager to avail himself of the and Samuel C. Derby, A. M., acting presidents. treasured experience of others. In these scintilIts endowment is upward of $120,000. It has a lations of wisdom, struck out from the minds of preparatory and collegiate department; and stu- ancient and modern sages, philosophers, and edudents are permitted to select any studies from its cators, will be found an illumination sufficient percurriculum which they are able to pursue with haps to guide the humble explorer in the field of advantage, and receive a certificate for the same, pedagogical lore, to the true path to professional after passing a satisfactory examination. In this success, as well as to the temple of speculative respect, the institution affords the advantages of and practical truth. The few here given have the best academies. It has a musical institute been selected not only for their appositeness, but under the supervision of the faculty, and a li- for their value as the exponents to correct educabrary of 5000 volumes. The number of students tion and teaching. Their arrangement by topics in 1874 was about 100. The co-education of the will not only serve to divest them collectively sexes has been very successful in this institution. of their fragmentary character, but render them The annual tuition fee is $37. easy of reference and application. In regard to the value of aphorisms in general, Coleridge remarks: Exclusively of the abstract sciences, the largest and worthiest portion of our knowledge consists of aphorisms; and the greatest and best of men is but an aphorism."

ANTIPATHY. This term, the opposite of sympathy, denotes the instinctive dislike which is felt towards some persons on account of certain peculiarities of temperament, disposition, manners, etc. The natural characteristics of different persons show remarkable diversities in this respect. Some seem to exert a kind of magnetic influence, which attracts and engages others, and by means of which they immediately gain the good-will and affection of those with whom they are brought into communication. Others, on the contrary, appear to repel, as it were, all who approach them, and are obliged, therefore, to make special effort to secure the confidence and good-will of their associates. Frankness and candor tend to inspire confidence; while an exhibition of reserve and shyness produces aversion and distrust. Shy, secretive persons strive to avoid others, and are instinctively avoided. They naturally produce antipathy. Hatred is engendered in the mind towards those who commit positive acts of injury, wrong, or crime; but this is to be distinguished from antipathy, which

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I. Value of Education.

for his study than education and all that perMan cannot propose a higher or holier object tains to education.-PLATO.

Man becomes what he is principally by education, which pertains to the whole of life.-PLATO.

Man becomes what he is by nature, habit, instruction; the last two together constitute education, and must always accompany each other. - ARISTOTLE.

There is within every mind a divine ideal, the type after which he was created, the germs of a perfect person; and it is the office of education to favor and direct these germs.--KANT.

Man is the product of his education.

HELVETIUS.

A right-directed system of education is a moral power in the mind, second only to that creating energy that formed and sustains in existence its material frame-work.—A. R. CRAIG.

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