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APHORISMS

Of all the men we meet with, nine parts out of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education.-LOCKE.

Education is to inspire the love of truth, as the supreme good, and to clarify the vision of the intellect to discern it.--H. MANN.

Education is the one living fountain which must water every part of the social garden, or its beauty withers, and fades away.-E. EVERETT. II. Scope of Education.

The object of education is not external show and splendor, but inward development.-SENECA. A good education consists in giving to the body and the soul all the perfection of which they are susceptible.-PLATO.

Education can improve nature, but not com+pletely change it.-ARISTOTLE.

The object of the science of education is to render the mind the fittest possible instrument for discovering, applying, or obeying the laws under which God has placed the universe.-WAYLAND.

The first principle of human culture, the foundation-stone of all but false, imaginary culture, is, that men must, before every other thing, be trained to do somewhat. Thus, and thus only, the living force of a new man can be awakened, enkindled, and purified into victorious clearness.-CARLYLE.

The object of education ought to be to develop in the individual all the perfection of which he is capable.-KANT.

I call that education which embraces the culture of the whole man, with all his faculties-subjecting his senses, his understanding, and his passions to reason and to conscience. FELLENBERG.

I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, magnanimously, all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.-MILTON.

All true education is a growth; the mind is not a mere capacity to be filled like a granary; it is a power to be developed.-J. P. WICKERSHAM.

The object of education is rather to form a perfect character, than to qualify for any particular

station or office.-A. POTTER.

The educator should not so much form and instill, as develop and call out.—MICHAELIS. + The school is a manufactory of humanity.

III. Teacher and Pupil.

COMENIUS.

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It is the teacher's character that determines the character of the school; not what he does so Imuch as what he is. The maxim is a true one: As is the teacher, so is the school.-J. CURRIE. Teachers should observe the following rules:1. Never to correct a child in anger.

2. Never to deprive a child of anything without returning it.

3. Never to break a promise.

4. Never to overlook a fault.

5. In all things, to set before the child an example worthy of imitation.—WILDERSPIN. It matters not how learned the teacher's own mind may be, and how well replenished with ideas, and how widely soever he sees them, there is a power beyond this necessary, to produce copies of these ideas on the minds of others.-A. R. CRAIG.

Those studies should be regarded as primary, that teach young persons to know what they are seeing, and to see what they otherwise would fail to see.-J. S. BLACKIE.

Long discourses and philosophical reasonings, at best, amaze and confound, but do not instruct children.-LOCKE.

It is as important how children learn, as what they learn.-DR. MAYO.

A skillful master who has a child placed under his care, will begin by sounding well the character of his genius and natural parts.-QUINTILIAN. Rules should not be set before examples.COMENIUS.

Actual intuition is better than demonstration.COMENTUS.

At first it is no great matter how much you learn, but how well you learn it.-ERASMUS. youth, the indulgence of manhood, and the Study is the bane of childhood, the aliment of restoration of age.-W. S. LANDOR.

A teacher ought to know of every thing much more than the learner can be expected to acquire. He must know things in a masterly way, curiously, nicely, and in their reasons.—Ě. EVERETT.

incite curiosity, promote inquiry, prompt investiThe teacher should create an interest in study, gation, inspire self-confidence, give hints, make suggestions, and tempt pupils on to try their strength and test their skill.-J. P. WICKERSHAM.

There is frequently more to be learned from the unexpected questions of a child, than from the Nature without instruction is blind; instruc-discourse of men who talk in a road, according tion without nature is faulty; practice without either of them is imperfect.-PLUTARCH.

The fittest time for children to learn anything, is when their minds are in tune, and well-disposed to it.-LOCKE.

Let the tutor make his pupil examine and thoroughly sift every thing he reads, and lodge nothing in his head upon simple authority and upon trust.-MONTAIGNE.

Let the child learn what is appropriate for his years, and not precociously what he ought to learn afterwards.-ROUSSEAU.

To learn is to proceed from something that is known to the knowledge of something unknown.COMENIUS. Perverseness in the pupil is often the effect of frowardness in the teacher.-LOCKE.

The great skill of a teacher is to get and keep the attention of his scholar; whilst he has that, he is sure to advance as fast as the learner's ability will carry him.-LOCKE.

to the notions they have borrowed and the prejudices of their education.-LOCKE.

From every thing noble the mind receives seeds, which are vivified by admonition and instruction, as a light breath kindles up the spark in the ashes.-SENECA.

Curiosity in children is but an appetite after knowledge; and, therefore, ought to be encouraged in them, not only as a sign, but as the great instrument nature has provided to remove that ignorance they were born with.--LOCKE.

Clearness of ideas must be cultivated by exercising the intuition, and the pupil must be educated to independent activity in the use of his Own understanding. ---SENECA.

Ideas before words; principles before rules; the judgment before the memory; incidental information before systematic; reading before spelling; the sounds of the letters before their names; and, on the whole, nature before art.A. R. CRAIG.

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The school should cautiously beware of making sacrifice to the arrogant requirements of the spirit of the age; which, when it takes a wrong direction, promotes nonsense, and desires to study by steam.-STOY.

The power of reflection, it is well known, is the last of our intellectual faculties that unfolds itself; and, in by far the greater number of individuals, it never unfolds itself in any considerable degree.-D. STEWART.

Arouse in the child the all-powerful sense of the universe, and the man will raise himself above the world; the eternal over the changeable.-cated RICHTER.

The process of enlightening the mind should not be like lightning in the night, giving a strong light for a moment, but only blinding by it, and then leaving every thing dark again; but like daybreak, which renders every thing gradually light.-J. A. FISCHER.

Human perfection is the grand aim of all welldirected education: the teacher should have ever present with him his ideal man whose perfections he would realize in the children committed to his care, as the sculptor would realize the pure forms of his imagination on the rough marble that lies unchiseled before him.-J. P. WICKERSHAM. IV. Training and Habit.

Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it.SOLOMON.

Training is developing according to an idea.-
SCHWARZ.

No teaching or lecturing will suffice without training or doing. -Srow.

You cannot by all the lecturing in the world enable a man to make a shoe.-DR. JOHNSON.

Nature develops all the human faculties by practice, and their growth depends upon their exercise. PESTALOZZI.

The intellect is perfected not by knowledge, but by activity.--ARISTOTLE.

The end of philosophy is not knowledge, but the energy conversant about knowledge.-ARIS

TOTLE.

The great thing to be minded in education is, what habits you settle.-LOCKE.

Infinite good comes from good habits; which must result from the common influence of exam

ple, intercourse, knowledge, and actual experience: morality taught by good morals.-PLATO.

It is habit which gives men the real possession of the wisdom which they have acquired, and gives enduring strength in it.-PYTHAGORAS.

A man is not educated until he has the ability to summon, on an emergency, his mental powers in vigorous exercise, to effect his proposed object.-D. WEBSTER,

The great result of schooling is a mind with just vision to discern, with free force to do; the grand schoolmaster is Practice.--CARLYLE.

Habit is a power which it is not left to our option to call into existence or not; it is given to us to use or abuse, but we cannot prevent its working.-J. CURRIE.

The mind, impressible and soft, with ease
Imbibes and copies what she hears and sees,
And through life's labyrinth holds fast the clew
That education gave her, false or true.-COWPER.

V. Development of the Faculties.
All our knowledge originates with the senses,
proceeds thence to the understanding, and ends
with the reason, which is subordinate to no
higher authority in us, in working up intuitions,
and bringing them within the highest unity of
thought.-KANT.

Clearness of ideas must be cultivated by exercising the intuition, and the pupil must be eduto independent activity in the use of his own understanding.-NIEMEYER. The laws which govern the growth and operations of the human mind are as definite, and as general in their application, as those which apply to the material universe; and a true system of education must be based upon a knowledge and application of these laws.-J. HENRY.

Knowledge begins with perception by the senses; and this is, by the power of conception, impressed upon the memory. Then the understanding, by an induction from these single conceptions, forms general truths, or ideas; and lastly, certain knowledge arises from the result of judgments upon what is thoroughly understood. COMENIUS.

The mind may be as much drawn into a habit of observation and reflection from a well-directed lesson on a pin, as from the science of astronomy.-A. R. CRAIG.

During early childhood enough is done if mental vivacity be maintained.-I. TAYLOR.

The conceptive faculty is the earliest developed, and the first to reach its maturity; it moreover supplies materials and a basis for every other mental operation.—I. TAYLOR.

VI. Language.

Things and words should be studied together, but things especially, as being the object both of the understanding and of language.-COMENIUS.

He who has no knowledge of things will not be helped by a knowledge of words.- LUTHER,

The signs of thought are so intimately associated with thought itself, that the study of language, in its highest form, is the study of the processes of pure intellect.-E. EVERETT,

Speech and knowledge should proceed with equal steps.-COMENIUS.

We cannot express in words the thousandth part of what we actually think, but only a few points of the rapid stream of thought, from the crests of its highest waves.-ZSCHOKKE.

Language is the sheath in which is kept the sword of the mind; the casket in which we preserve our jewel; the vessel in which we secure food.-LUTHER. our drink; the store-house where we lay up our

Thinking is aided by language, and, to a great instrument and auxiliary.-N. PORTER. extent, is dependent upon it as its most efficient

VII. Self-Education.

The primary principle of education is the determination of the pupil to self-activity-the doing nothing for him which he is able to do for himself. Sir W. HAMILTON.

The peculiar importance of the education of childhood lies in the consideration, that it prepares the way for the subsequent self-education of manhood.-J. CURRIE.

Self-activity is the indispensable condition of improvement; and education is only educationthat is, accomplishes its purposes, only by affording objects and supplying materials to this spon

APHORISMS

taneous exertion. Strictly speaking, every man must educate himself.-Sir W. HAMILTON.

The child learns more by his fourth year, than the philosopher at any subsequent period of his life; he learns to affix an intelligible sign to every outward object and inward emotion, by a gentle impulse imparted by his lips to the air.--E. EVERETT. If all the means of education which are scattered over the world, and if all the philosophers and teachers of ancient and modern times, were to be collected together, and made to bring their combined efforts to bear upon an individual, all they could do would be to afford the opportunity of improvement.-DEGÉRANDO.

VIII. Moral Education.

The best-trained head along with a corrupt heart, is like a temple built over a den of robbers.-TEGNÉR.

Head and heart constitute together the being of man, and he who is sound in one only is a cripple.-STOY.

It holds as a rule in mental as well as in moral education, that the learner should be habituated to what is right before he is exercised in judging what is wrong.—J. CURRIE.

If you can get into children a love of credit, and an apprehension of shame and disgrace, you have put into them the true principle, which will constantly work, and incline them to the right.

LOCKE.

Man may be said originally to be inclined to all vices; for he has desires and instincts which influence him, although his reason impels him in an opposite direction. -KANT.

In my opinion, the first lesson which should quicken the understanding of the young, should be intended to form their morals and their perceptions; to teach them to know themselves, to live well and to die well.-MONTAIGNE.

Direct teaching on moral ideas and principles is an important part of instruction. --HEGEL.

Faith in God is the source of all wisdom and all blessings, and is nature's road to the pure education of man. --PESTALOZZI.

He that will have his son have a respect for him and his orders, must have a great reverence for his son. "Maxima debetur pueris reverentia."--LOCKE. A properly conducted school is a sort of moral gymnasium, preparatory to the great struggle on the arena of life.-A. R. CRAIG.

Morality is in infancy founded on the authority of the parent, acting with the support of habit and association; what he commands is law; the virtue of childhood is summed up in obedience.-CURRIE. In man, the ideal is older than the actual. The loftly lies nearer the child than the debased. We measure time by the stars, and reckon by the clock of the sun, before we do by the city clock.RICHTER. Love awakens love; and a cold and heartless education usually produces a pupil of the same character.-J. A. FISCHER.

Children should live in their paradise, as did our first parents, those truly first children.-ROUSSEAU.

IX. Discipline and Government. Correct thy son, and he shall give thee rest; yea, he shall give delight unto thy soul.-SOLOMON, He that spareth his rod hateth his son; but he that loveth him chasteneth him betimes.-SOLO

MON.

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No father inflicts his severest punishment, until he has tried all other means.-SENECA.

A principal point in education is discipline, which is intended to break the self-will of children, in order to the rooting out of their natural low tendencies.-HEGEL.

There is one, and but one fault, for which children should be beaten; and that is obstinacy or rebellion.-LOCKE.

Beating is the worst, and, therefore, the last means to be used in the correction of children.— LOCKE.

The shame of the whipping, and not the pain, should be the greatest part of the punishment.

LOCKE

No frighted water-fowl, whose plumage the bullet of the sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker beneath the surface, than a child's spirit darts from your eye when you have filled it with the sentiment of fear.-H. MANN.

A school can be governed only by patient, enlightened, Christian love, the master principle of our natures. It softens the ferocity of the savage; it melts the felon in his cell. In the management of children it is the great source of influence; and the teacher of youth, though his mind be a store-house of knowledge, is ignorant of the first principle of his art, if he has not embraced this as an elemental maxim.-E. EVERETT.

Angry feelings in a teacher beget angry feelings in a pupil; and if they are repeated day after day, they will at last rise to obstinacy, to obduracy and incorrigibleness.-H. MANN.

The evil of corporal punishment is less than the evil of insubordination or disobedience. H. MANN.

It is the teacher's duty to establish authority; peaceably, indeed, if he may,-forcibly if he must.-D. P. PAGE.

There are usually easier avenues to the heart, than that which is found through the integuments of the body.-D. P. PAGE.

Several collections of educational aphorisms be found in BARNARD'S American Journal

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of Education (passim).-See also WOHLFARTH, Pedagogical Treasure-Casket (Pädagogisches Schatzkästlein, Gotha, 1857), translated in BARNARD'S Journal; also the same, republished from BARNARD'S Journal, entitled Educational Aphorisms and Suggestions, Ancient and Modern.

APPARATUS, School. The work of instruction in school is very greatly facilitated by sufficient and appropriate apparatus, such as blackboards, slates, globes, maps, charts, etc. This is especially required in the teaching of children in classes, as in common schools. By this means, the sense of sight being addressed, the impressions made are clearer and more durable. Besides, the concrete is made to take the place of the abstract, by the use of suitable apparatus; and, in the first stages of education, the former is almost exclusively to be employed, since abstract principles or truths are not comprehended by the young mind, except upon a sufficiently extensive basis of concrete facts. Thus, by means of the numeral frame, the various rudimental combinations of numbers are presented to the mind of the young pupil, in conne tion

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with actual objects; and in this manner a clear idea is given of those processes which, merely by abstract statements of the truths, would scarcely be apprehended at all. Of course, the teacher should be careful not to carry the use of such apparatus beyond its proper limits; since the pupil's mind is gradually to be accustomed to conceive clearly the truth of abstract propositions without regard to their concrete applications.

ARABIAN SCHOOLS

by means of artificial contrivances. This depends upon an important principle which the teacher should be careful to recognize and apply. (See BLACKBOARD, and NUMERAL FRAME.)

APPORTIONMENT. See SCHOOL FUND. ARABIAN SCHOOLS. The peninsula of Arabia, situated between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, has an area of 1,218,798 square miles, and a population estimated at 5,000,000. Of late, the Arabs have been of but little account in the annals of education as well as in political history. In former centuries, on the other hand, they occupied, for a considerable time, a prominent position. Arabia was the birthplace of Islamism, which, in its doctrinal and ethical peculiarities, bears the most evident marks of the people among whom, and the country in which, it originated. With the rapid spread of this religion, the Arabs became a powerful people, extending their political rule far beyond their original borders. Large empires were founded in Asia, Africa, and Europe; and science and the arts kept pace in their development with the increase of political power. The Arabian schools of the caliphate, and, later, those founded by the Moors, in Spain, not only attained a worldwide reputation, but, for a time, were generally recognized as eclipsing all other literary institutions. The prosperity of these schools began during the rule of the dynasty of the Ommiyades. These monarchs transferred their residence to Damascus, the capital of Syria, which at that time was a chief seat of Greek literature, appointed many Greeks and Syrians as surveyors, archidetects, and physicians; and brought the Arabian mind into contact with the civilization of the Greeks and the Syrians. The dynasty of the Abbassides, which succeeded that of the Ommiyades in 750, were still more instrumental in the promotion of science and literature among the Arabs. A large number of Greek authors were translated into Arabic; and in medical literature the Arabs became so proficient, that through the middle ages they were regarded as the highest authorities. Soon the Arabian schools were also regarded as superior to all others in mathematics and astronomy. A translation of Aristotle had a far reaching influence upon the further development of the Arabian mind. The teachings of Aristotle not only became the basis of Arabic philosbut through the influence of the Arabian schools, the study of this great Greek philosopher became popular among the Jews in Spain and, subsequently, generally among the Jews and Christians of Europe. The highest prosperity was attained by the Arabian Schools in Spain. In the high schools of Cordova, Toledo, Salamanca, and Seville, nearly all branches of human knowledge, Mohammedan theology and law, mathematics, astronomy, history and geography, grammar and rhetoric, medicine and philosophy, were taught. In these schools, Jewish, Mohammedan, and Christian teachers worked harmoniously together. The students lived in colleges, and, from time to time, had to pass examinations. The teachers sometimes employed substitutes. In the

Every stage or grade of school instruction must have its appropriate apparatus. Infant instruction requires a great number and variety of simple apparatus (gifts) in order, by natural methods, to aid the development of the child's mind. (See KINDERGARTEN.) The primary | school should be supplied with a numeral frame, blackboards, slates, and pencils for the use of the children, a box of forms, spelling and reading charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and, when elementary geography is taught, simple maps and a small globe. For this purpose, one that may be divided into hemispheres (Hand Hemisphere Globe) is best; since by means of it | the relation of the planisphere maps to the globe may be clearly shown. (See GLOBES.) A simple relief globe is also of great service at this stage. Other ingenious and attractive apparatus has been devised to aid the work of the primary school teacher, to which a special reference is not needed. In the more advanced stages of instruction, the use of any other than the ordinary apparatus, such as the blackboard, maps, globes, etc., becomes less and less necessary, except in the teaching of certain special subjects; as higher arithmetic, mensuration, astronomy, and other partments of natural science. For such purposes, the cube-root blocks and other geometrical solids, a tellurian, an orrery, etc., will be of great value. Charts of physiology, history, etc., are scarcely to be dispensed with. In the teaching of natural science, very expensive and complicated apparatus is not at first required Indeed, the simpler it is, the better; since the use of such appliances will incite the pupil himself to experiment with those simple contrivances which his own powers of invention will enable him to devise. Thus the use of the lever may be just as well explained by means of a pen-holder or a pointer as by a polished steel rod specially constructed for the purpose. Nothing marks more fully the ability of the teacher than adroitnessophy, in availing himself of all common resources for the purpose of illustration. Some of the most important discoveries in physical science have been made with very rude apparatus. In the use of apparatus to illustrate scientific facts, as of the globe, tellurian, or orrery for the purpose of teaching astronomy, it should always be borne in mind that such contrivances cannot supersede the study of nature itself. Cumbrous and complicated machinery, without an attentive observation of the natural phenomena which they are intended to explain, rather serve to give false notions than to impart correct ideas of the actual facts. The latter must be clearly grasped by the mind as facts before their illustration is attempted

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ARCHEOLOGY

lower schools, which were mostly connected with mosques, the pupils often received their clothing and board gratuitously. The fame of the Arabian schools in Spain attracted students from all parts of Christian Europe, who were anxious to acquaint themselves with the Greek and Arabic literature and the Aristotelian philosophy. Among the many celebrated men who studied there, was the learned Gerbert, who became pope under the name of Sylvester II. Among the results which these students brought with them from the Arabian schools. were the Arabic numbers, now in general use in the civilized world. At the close of the 10th century, the Arabian schools in Spain began to decline, and the downfall of the caliphate of Bagdad, in 1258, extinguished the fame of their Asiatic schools.

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on that subject is the Handbuch der Archæologie
by K. O. MUELLER (3d edit., by Welcker, Bres-
lau, 1846). An English work on the subject is
WESTROPP's Handbook of Archeology (Lond.,
1869). Biblical archæology and ecclesiastical or
Christian archæology, are branches of theology.
The former treats of the ancient geography,
physical condition, and ethnography, and the
general antiquities of Palestine and the adjacent
countries; the latter, of the antiquities of the
Christian Church, and chiefly of the early his-
tory of Christian worship. Works on biblical
archæology have been written by DE WETTE,
SCHOLZ, JAHN, Rosenmueller, KEIL, and others;
on Christian archæology, by BINGHAM, PELLICIA,
AUGUSTI, BINTERIM, RHEINWALD, OTTE, HENRY
(Philadelphia, 1837), RIDDLE (2d edit., Lond.,
1843), COLEMAN, (Ancient Christianity exempli-
fied, Philadelphia. 1853). At many of the
European universities and theological schools,
special courses of lectures on classical, biblical, or
Christian archæology are provided for.

ARCHITECTURE. See FINE ARTS.
ARCHITECTURE, School. See SCHOOL

HOUSE.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, an independent state of South America, area 841,000 sq. m., or, if we add the territory which is claimed by both the Argentine Republic and Chili, 1,000,000 sq. m.; population, according to the census of 1869, 1,879,410. The republic is growing rapidly, the increase of population from 1836 to 1869 amounting to 146 per cent. Since 1863, immigration has begun to assume large proportions. While. from 1863 to 1866, it averaged annually little more than 10,000, it reached, in 1870 and the following years, 40,000. The foreign element is especially large in the city and province of Buenos Ayres, and a considerable number of prominent positions in the literary institutions of the country are occupied by foreigners. Almost the whole native population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church; but the immigrants from the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and Switzerland have established a number of Protestant congregations and schools. To these a few native congregations have been added by the Methodist missionaries from the United States. There is a marked difference between the population of the towns, and that of the country. The former are generally civilized, and take a profound interest in education; but the gauchos, or the horsemen of the plain, think but little of education and civili

In Arabia, at present, there is little education deserving the name. Among the Bedouins, there are no schools, and those that exist in the towns and villages are only of a very elementary character, generally connected with the mosques, and giving instruction in reading, particularly of the Koran, writing, and the rudiments of arithmetic. In the schools connected with the mosques, which are public schools, the poorer children are taught gratuitously; but besides these schools, there are private seminaries for the instruction of children of the higher and middle classes. A private teacher for children and young slaves is no uncommon part of the domestic establishments of distinguished families. There is no public provision for the education of women. In some of the larger towns and cities, there are colleges and professional schools, in which mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc., are taught. One of the chief studies is that of the Arabic, to enable the scholars to read the Koran and the commentaries upon it, of which there are several; since these are written in a dialect differing in some respects from that now in general use. See SCHMIDT, Geschichte der Pädagogik, vol. 11. ARCHEOLOGY (from apɣaios, ancient, and 26yos, knowledge, science) denotes properly the science of antiquities. In the widest sense of the word, it would embrace the history, mythology, political institutions, religion, commerce, industry, literature, and fine arts of ancient times, but it is now more generally used in a restricted sense. Some writers, especially in America, apply it to the researches into the primeval period of man, and, in particular, into the history, customs, and remains of the primitive inhabitants of a country. Thus the Indians in the United States and the Celts in Great Britain, have become the sub-zation. jects of profound archæological research.-In Germany the term is now more frequently used to denote the science of the monuments which are left to us from ancient times, and especially from Greek, Etruscan, and Latin antiquity. As the ancient monuments contain a vast amount of information, not to be derived from classical literature, archæology is regarded as an important auxiliary to the science of classical philology. The founder of archæology as a special science was Winckelmann; and the most famous work

The territory of the Argentine Republic, after being occupied by the Spaniards, formed a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru till 1776, when the Viceroyalty of La Plata was erected. The war of independence against Spain began in 1810, and was successfully ended in 1812. In 1813, a Sovereign Assembly was convoked; and in 1817, the independence of the United Provinces of La Plata was formally declared. Like the other republics of Spanish America, the country suffered much from civil wars. From 1852 to 1860,

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