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ARKANSAS

ARKANSAS UNIVERSITY

The amount of money distributed since Oct. 1st, transferred to the secretary of state, "until other1870, was as follows:

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Almost the only encouraging feature of the period covered by Superintendent Smith's second report, was the opening of the Arkansas Industrial University (Jan. 22d, 1872), in the town of Fayetteville. Mr. Smith was succeeded in the office of superintendent by Joseph C. Corbin, who entered upon the duties of his office in 1872; and the only report which he issued was for the year ending September 30th, 1873. Prior to this, the general assembly passed a new revenue law, which was construed to repeal the provision of the former law appropriating two mills on the dollar out of the ordinary revenue of the state for school purposes. This reduced the amount of the semi-annual apportionment from $210,000 to $55,000, all of which was in state scrip, worth at the time about 35 per cent. The same legislature abolished the office of circuit superintendent, and substituted that of county superintendent. It also limited the local tax to a maximum of five mills; and a decision of the supreme court made even this tax payable in state scrip. The following are the principal items of the school statistics for the year 1873:

Attendance of pupils..
Number of teachers..
Number of school-houses.
Number of teachers' institutes.
Amount paid teachers....

59,587 1,481

1,035 26 .$259,747.08

Revenue raised for school purposes...$258,456.09 Amount of expenditures...

.$318,997.77

A new constitution was adopted in 1874,of which the following are the chief provisions in regard to education:-(1) That the state shall ever maintain a general, suitable, and efficient system of free schools, whereby all persons in the state, between the ages of six and twenty-one years, may receive gratuitous instruction;" (2) That no school money or property shall be used for any other purpose; (3) That the general assembly shall provide for the support of common schools by a tax, not to exceed the rate of two mills on the dollar, on the taxable property of the state; a capitation tax of one dollar, and a local tax not to exceed five mills on the dollar; (4) That the supervision of the schools shall be vested in "such officers as may be provided for by the general assembly." Under this last provision, the duties of superintendent of public instruction were

wise provided by law."

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Elementary Instruction. The only common schools in the state at present (Nov. 1875) are those of the city of Little Rock, which were opened September 13th, 1875. The sole reliance of the mass of the citizens for educational advantages is, therefore, upon private schools, of which a large number were opened at the beginning of the school year. No school report has been rendered since that of Superintendent Corbin, in 1873, as the necessary duties of the secretary of state have rendered an active supervision of the schools impossible, and the returns from the local officers are very imperfect.

Normal Instruction. The chief provision for the training of teachers in the state is the normal department of the State Industrial University. A course of two years and one of three years have been arranged, the former embracing all the studies likely to be taught in any of the common schools, and the latter, those of the high schools. Male applicants for admission are required to be 16 of years age, and females 14. A training school is operated in connection with this school. Besides this, Quitman College, in Van Buren county, is a normal school for the training of colored teachers. There is also a state teachers' association.

Superior Instruction. The most prominent of the higher educational institutions of the state are the Arkansas Industrial University, at Fayetteville (q. v.), and St. John's College, at Little Rock (q. v.); the latter of which is under the control of the masonic fraternity.

Special Instruction. The Arkansas DeafMute Institute and the Arkansas Institute for the Education of the Blind, both at Little Rock, are the only institutions for special instruction. The former was incorporated as a state institution in 1868. The latter, the same year, was removed from Arkadelphia to Little Rock. The financial embarrassments of the state have greatly impeded the progress and efficient operation of these institutions.

Educational Journal, etc.-The last educational journal published in the state was the Arkansas Journal of Education, which suspended publication in 1872; and the only works on the schools of the state are the three educational reports of the state superintendents.

While the present educational condition of Arkansas is by no means cheering, it is not quite hopeless. The decadence of the school system, which a short time ago was so promising, is the result of financial, political, and social evils and misfortunes that have afflicted the state from its earliest history. Many of these evils, however, are already things of the past, of which only the effects remain. Under the present administration, much has been done towards developing the natural resources of the state; and there is no doubt that, in a few years, its educational prosperity will be restored.

ARKANSAS INDUSTRIAL UNIVER

SITY, at Fayetteville, Arkansas, was provided

ARMY SCHOOLS

for by an act of the state legislature in 1868, but was not opened until January 22., 1872. The law regulating the institution provides for 327 beneficiaries who are entitled to four years' free tuition. The value of the grounds, building3, etc. is $180,000. The buildings will accommodate four hundred students, and consist of a brick edifice five stories high, 214 feet in length, with a depth in the wings of 122 feet, with five large and several small halls, and thirty classrooms. The report of the university for 1874 showed an attendance of 321 students, in its various departments, under the instruction of seven professors and three other instructors. The institution includes a preparatory and a normal department, a college of engineering, and a college of general science and literature. A college of agriculture and a college of natural science, with a school of military science, and a school of commerce, are also provided for; and an experimental farm for the agricultural college has been secured. The university library is as yet quite small. Gen. Albert W. Bishop is the president of the institution.

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of man. The work of these three great powers is conditioned by the bodily and spiritual development of the pupil. In childhood, it is chiefly the power of love, represented by the mother, which moulds the young mind, and instills into it the first notions of God, man, and life. The power of necessity must curb and discipline the vehemence of boyhood, and teach the habit of diligence. At last, in the age of ripe youth, love and necessity coalesce into the spirit of freedom, or self-control, which is the completion of every harmonious education. A few years later, Arndt gave an exposition of the same principles, with special reference to the education of princes, in his work Entwurf der Erziehung und Unterweisung eines Fürsten (Berlin, 1813). These educational works of Arndt exercised far less influence upon the rising generation of Germany than his fairy tales, and especially his patriotic songs, many of which are to be found in most German reading-books and thus have contributed very much toward shaping the German mind of the nineteenth century. In his autobiography, Erinnerungen aus dem äusseren Leben (LeipSic, 2d ed., 1840), Arndt treats fully of his own education. Biographies of Arndt have been written by EUGEN LABES (1860), H. REHBEIN and R. KEIL (1861), and D. SCHENKEL (1866).—SEE also G. FREYTAG, in Deutsche Allgemeine Biographie, art. Arndt.

ARMY SCHOOLS. SEE MILITARY SCHOOLS. ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a German patriot and author, was born Dec. 26., 1769, at Schoritz on Rügen, and died Jan. 29., 1860, at Bonn. He was appointed, in 1805, professor at the university of Greifswalde; but he wrote violently against Napoleon and, therefore, fled, after the battle at ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., the illustrious Jena, in 1806, to Sweden. In 1809, he returned, English teacher and historian, was born at West and henceforth took a prominent part in the na- Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, in 1795. He was tional movement in Germany which led to the educated at Winchester College and Oxford wars of liberation (1813 to 1815), and the over- University, from the latter of which he obtained throw of the French rule in Germany. In 1818, a first-class degree in 1814. He attained his he was appointed professor of history at the uni- greatest fame as head-master of Rugby School, versity of Bonn; but, in the next year he was to which position he was elected in 1828, and in retired in consequence of his liberal sentiments. which he continued till his death. In the course In 1840, he was re-instated by the new king of instruction of this school, he introduced many Frederick William IV.; and, in 1848, he was improvements; but it was the system of moral a member of the National Assembly of Frankfort, teaching and training which he established, that which attempted the reconstruction of a united gave to him and to the school their greatest distincGermany. Arndt is chiefly famous in Germany tion. He preserved among the boys the highest as one of the foremost promoters of patriotism. tone of moral and religious sentiment; and, with One of his songs, Was ist des Deutschen Vater-consummate tact, habituated them to the practice Umd? was long regarded as the most popular of the principles which he taught, making himnational hymn; but was superseded in popular self both feared and loved. His chief reliance favor, during the Franco-German war, by Die was upon guiding the public opinion of the Wacht am Rhein. Some of Arndt's numerous school, as the most powerful element of control works are of a pedagogical character, the most in every community. For the practice of "fagimportant of which is Fragmente über Menschen-ging" previously in vogue in the school, he instibildung (Altona, 1805), which explains the principles of a rational education of man in accordance with the dictates of his nature. In opposition to the ideas of Rousseau, he insisted that the essence of man must not be sought in the sensuous nature of the isolated individual. but in his spiritual part, and in his relations to parents, family, society, and his native country. From this point of view, Arndt contends, with Pestalozzi, that the mother should be the first teacher of the child, and that her instruction should proceed from the concrete. He represents love, necessity, and freedom as the three powers which co-operate in the education

tuted a system of responsible supervision by the pupils of the highest class over the younger boys, thus giving full opportunity for the active exercise of those virtues which they had been taught. Rugby, however, by no means occupied all his time and attention. For some time he held a place in the senate of the London University, and a short time before his death, accepted the appointment of Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, where he delivered some introductory lectures. To this position he intended to devote his whole energies, retiring from Rugby; but his plans were frustrated by his sudden death, in 1842. His greatest literary

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ous.

ARNOLD

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work is the History of Rome, which he published in three volumes (1838 1840-1842), brought down to the end of the Second Punic War. This work he did not live to complete. His miscellaneous writings are varied and numerDr. Arnold's purity and elevation of character, his conscientious zeal and wise efforts as a practical educator, his learning and literary skill, and the excellent example which he presented in all the relations of life, entitle him to be considered "one of the brightest ornaments of his age." See STANLEY, Arnold's Life and Correspondence (London, 1845); also Tom Brown's School-Days at Rugby (London and Boston, 1857).

ARNOLD, Thomas Kerchever, an English clergyman, was born in 1800 and died in 1853. He is chiefly noted for his school manuals for elementary instruction in Greek, Latin, French, German, and some other languages. These books have been extensively used in this country as well as in England. They are based upon a thorough system of practical drill in all the peculiarities of the language to be taught. Mr. Arnold also prepared a series of school classics, and published articles on various religious and ecclesiastical questions. His manuals for classical study are based on a system similar to that of Ollendorff.

ART EDUCATION. Every complete system of education must provide for the culture of all the varied faculties of the human mind, physical and intellectual, moral and spiritual, esthetic and emotional; and must, besides, supply the means necessary for the development of those practical capacities upon which the social and national progress of every civilized people depends. Among the agencies required for this purpose, art education claims profound attention. The element of beauty, which exists in the human mind, when made the subject of progressive cultivation, and applied to the various industries of social life, becomes a thing of pecuniary as well as esthetic value. The training of the hand and eye, which is obtained by drawing, is proved by experience to be of very great advantage to the operative in every branch of industry; indeed, in many occupations, drawing is indispensable to success. But the value is still greater if to this simple training, the culture of the perception and conception of forms and their combinations is added, leading to skill in designing a branch of art of the highest value in very many departments of manufacturing industry. "Art education", says an eminent authority," embraces all those appliances and methods of training by which the sense of form and proportion is developed. It is successful when the student unerringly discriminates between what is ugly and what is beautiful, and expresses his ideas of form in drawing as readily as ideas of other sorts on the written page."

Art culture among the ancients must have been carried to the highest degree of perfection, as is obvious on an inspection of Egyptian, Assyrian, and more especially Grecian antiquities.

ART EDUCATION

The genius of Phidias and Praxiteles must have owed its development to the results of many centuries of previous culture. The Parthenon was the noblest achievement of the loftiest genius making use of the agencies and results of the most complete culture and education in art. We have, however, no history of that education in detail. Instruction in the art of design (ypaçıký) was quite general at Athens and in some of the other Grecian states; and Aristotle, in his scheme of education, attributes to it great importance as a means of cultivating the sense of the beautiful. The establishment of art-schools and schools of design for the masses is, however, of modern origin, and is due to a consideration, based upon experience, of the great value of general artistic skill in increasing the sources of national wealth. This will be fully shown as we proceed; but as immediately relevant to it we quote the following statement of the French imperial commission, in its summary of the inquiry on profes sional education: "Among all the branches of instruction which, in different degrees, from the highest to the lowest grade, can contribute to the technical education of either sex, drawing, in all its forms and applications, has been almost unanimously regarded as the one which it is most important to make common." Heretofore, in the struggle and conflict of nations for supremacy and power, it was believed they could depend exclusively upon armed men and heavy guns; but to-day the great nations of Europe rely on industrial education, and the general culture of the people. The World's Fair held at London, in 1851, revealed plainly to England that she was far behind her great rival France in the production of articles requiring skilled labor and taste, indeed, below all the other civilized nations except the United States. Convinced of her inferiority, she went vigorously to work to give general instruction in the fine and industrial arts, by establishing schools for special training, free of cost, to those whom the science and art department of the government had selected for artmasters. Art-schools were founded for instruction in drawing, modeling, and design, in many of the large cities and towns throughout the kingdom. The British official report for 1872 shows that there were, at that time, in England 122 industrial art-schools; besides which there were 194,549 children receiving instruction in drawing in the "schools for the poor." Up to that time, there had been established one well-appointed art-school of 190 students for every 210.000 of the population; so rapidly was instruction in art as applied to industry provided for and diffused among the industrial classes of Great Britain. But the results had. previous to this time, been already definitely shown. At the Paris Exposition of 1867, England stood in the first rank of artistic nations, and even surpassed some of those who previously had carried off the highest honors. This great advance made by the English from 1851 to 1867 alarmed the French. They saw they could no longer rely on that prestige which had always placed them at the head; and they,

ART EDUCATION

in turn began to reconstruct, improve, and increase their art-schools. The commission appointed by the emperor Napoleon III., after due consideration, made an elaborate report, and the government acted upon its recommendations. Immediately after the late war between France and Germany, the Prussian minister of commerce and industry issued a circular calling upon the government and the people to follow the example of France; and it is now being followed in all the schools of Prussia, from the primary school to the university. Not only in England, France, and Germany, but in nearly all the other European countries is this great movement in art-education in progress. The United States, alone of all enlightened nations, is making but little advancement and little effort in this direction. New York, Massachusetts, and a few other states have enacted laws concerning the teaching of freehand drawing in the public schools, and in this way have shown some appreciation of the great importance of the subject.

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1825, Samuel F. B. Morse was chosen to pre-
side over a new association, just then formed,
called the New York Drawing Association.
It was out of the small number of artists who
constituted this association, and who met three
times a week to draw from casts, that the present
National Academy of Design was established.
Much dissatisfaction was caused among the
members of the Drawing Association, on ac-
count of an attempt of Col. John Trumbull, the
historical painter, acting as the president of the
then almost defunct Academy of Fine Arts, to
assume a kind of dictatorship over them. These
pretensions, however, were stoutly and success-
fully repelled by president Morse and the young
artists of the association. Col. Trumbull was
evidently opposed to art schools; and according
to Mr. Cummings, he assailed the students of
that day in a very rude and improper manner.
The resolution of Morse and his associates estab-
lished on a firm foundation the National
Academy of Design, on the 18th of January,
1826, with twenty-five artists, and a life school
of eleven students. Mr. Morse delivered an ad-
dress at the first exhibition of the new academy,
in which he announced a new departure from
the old forms and usages of the art-associations
which had previously been established.
course was to be the same as that adopted and
sanctioned by the academies of Europe. From
1826 to 1830, there was a bitter feud between
the rival institutions, the American Academy
and the National Academy, the former sup-
ported by the renowned John Vanderlyn, and
the latter by the illustrious and indefatigable
Morse. The contest ended by the discontinuance
of the older institution; but while it was in
progress, the interests of art were neglected, and
art-education sunk to a low ebb. Owing to
causes that have not been explained, the National
Academy of Design has never been able to estab-

During the first twenty-five years of the national independence of the United States, nothing was accomplished in art-education. All teaching was confined to the few lessons that were given by professional painters. Even at the commencement of the present century, no school hal been established. In 1802, however, a proposition was made to found an institution for the promotion of the arts of drawing, painting, and sculpture, in the city of New York, under the name of The New York Academy of Fine Arts. On account of the want of public interest in the enterprise, and the inactivity of those who started it, the charter for the academy was not obtained until 1808. In 1805, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts was founded at Philadelphia by seventy-one citizens; and in Boston, in 1807, the Public Library and Department of Fine Arts was established. These institutions are still in existence; but the New York Academylish only lasted till 1816. There is no evidence that there were any schools of importance connected with the first academies. The few artists who belonged to them probably practiced drawing from casts, and, it may be, sometimes from life.

Among the names of those who took an interest in art-matters at the early date here referred to, may be found some of the best men of the time; and at their head stood De Witt Clinton, certainly the foremost man in the State of New York. He was the president of the Academy, and delivered an address upon the Fine Arts when he retired from active participation in its affairs. According to the venerable Thomas A. Cummings, a veteran artist at this date (1876), this address was probably the first ever delivered in this country on that subject. It is likely that there were some artistic societies, classes, or clubs besides those mentioned, struggling into existence in cities like Boston, Philadelphia. Baltimore, Richmond, and Charleston, but of these we have but little or no history. It is quite certain that, up to 1816, no attempt had been made to instruct students anywhere in this country. In

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and continue a first-class school for the education of students. On this account, the institution can hardly lay claim to be a national one, nor can it be said that it has kept pace with the educational institutions of the country.

Methods of Art Instruction.—The modes of drawing and the usages of art-schools are nearly the same now that they were in the Old World two hundred years ago; that is, in schools in which pupils are trained to be professional artists. After students have learned to draw from the flat, from lithographs, drawings, etchings, etc., on paper, they are required to draw from plaster casts, mostly figures and fragments of the antique, statues, and busts. The teacher of drawing very often selects for the student those casts which are best suited to his taste, style, and ability. These casts are generally so arranged and illuminated as to show strong contrasts of light and shade; and each student is provided with an old-fashioned drawing-board, which is simply a board, generally about 35 × 25 inches, with two legs, resting upon the floor and thus supporting one end, while the other end rests on the lap of the student. A charcoal outline of the object to be

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ART EDUCATION

drawn is first made. This being easily rubbed off, the student is thus enabled to get the outline with less trouble than would be possible with crayons, which are only resorted to after a correct outline has been obtained. The life-school, as it is called, or more properly speaking, drawing from the living form, is generally conducted in the following manner. The model, or person who is to stand, or pose, is placed generally under the light, in whatever position may be chosen by the students. They then arrange themselves around the model, and begin their drawings. The model stands from twenty-five to fifty minutes in one position. A rest is then taken, and at will the model again assumes precisely the same position as before, and the drawing goes on until each student has finished.

Haven; namely, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, the National Academy of Design, and the Yale School of the Fine Arts. Ten of these institutions are for the special training of artists. Three others, the Boston Art-Club, the Palette Club, and the Ladies' Art-Association, are voluntary associations of artists, with life-classes, etc., for their own improvement.

In some of these schools nearly every kind of art-culture receives attention, drawing from the flat, from simple objects, casts, the antique, paintings, and from life; modeling in clay, wax, and plaster; painting in oil and water colors; architecture; and fresco painting. In others, the instruction is given with special reference to the practical application of science to art, to the education of skilled artisans, to mechanics, manufacturers, etc.

Art Schools in the United States.-The number of art-schools or institutions affording artinstruction, in the United States, according to The number of art schools is so small, comthe Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Edu-pared with the number of inhabitants, that, in cation, for 1874, is twenty-six; as shown in the following table.

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fact, but very little national progress in art-culture can be expected. On account of the lack of opportunities for studying painting and sculpture, most students who have the means go to Europe to obtain those facilities which are not to be found in this country. According to the Report above quoted, there are only 27 art-museums and art-collections, of colleges, etc., in the United States. Of these seven are in New York, six in Massachusetts, two each in Connecticut and Pennsylvania, and one each in Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, New Hampshire, Ohio, Rhode Island, Vermont, and the District of Columbia. The incomes of eight of these institutions, in 1874, were reported as amounting in the aggregate to about $200,000; but of this, $70,000 was reported as the income of the Corcoran Art Gallery, at Washington, which has an endowment of $1,000,000. Eleven of the twentyseven institutions above referred to are art-collections connected with colleges or universities, and most of them are of recent foundation,-five since 1872.

Instruction in Drawing.-There is a growing appreciation of the value of drawing as a branch of common school instruction, and a much clearer perception of the fact that to teach drawing systematically in the schools of the people is to lay the foundation not only of national art-culture, but of national progress in the industrial arts. The state superintendents and many of the city superintendents of public instruction this express sentiment very generally and strongly, and earnestly advocate the encouragement of drawing in the public schools, especially for the purpose of educating that class of pupils who are to become the future skilled laborers and artisans of the nation. As an illustration, we quote from the superintendent of schools in Indiana: “Indiana, as much as any state in the Union, needs to look after these interests, and needs to educate her children for the work which must either be done by them or by some more skillful class, imported from abroad to supply their places. Her wood, wool, minerals, and other rough materials are

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