sum by the number of sessions. Of course, this does not afford an accurate basis for comparison where the schools are kept open during different periods of the year; since a school which has been kept open all the year would, with the same number of pupils, show no larger average attendance than one kept open only one half the year. To rectify this, the aggregate number of pupils in attendance at all the sessions is often divided by a fixed number, without regard to the actual number of sessions. This method is sometimes legally enjoined for the purpose of an equitable distribution of the school moneys. Obviously, both the actual average and statute average are needed to ascertain the true effectiveness of a system of schools. The average attendance compared with the "average number belonging" is useful as showing the temporary regularity or irregularity of attendance, arising from various local or incidental causes. (See ABSENTEEISM.) It is generally conceded that in the United States particularly in the Northern and Western States there are but few native children who do not attend school some portion of the year, or who have never attended any school during their lives. It is chiefly among the foreign population, that the opportunities for school attendance are neglected.

ton (see Report of Commissioner of Education for 1874), and obviously shows, except in Massachusetts, great irregularity of attendance, as compared with the census enumeration of children of legal school age. The variations in the latter in the several States must be taken into account in the consideration of these comparative statistical facts. (See SCHOOL AGE.)

In Delaware, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, and West Virginia, the school age is the same-5 to 21; in Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, it is from 6 to 21; in Georgia, Nevada, Tennessee, and Texas, it is from 6 to 18; in California, 5 to 17; Connecticut, 4 to 16; and in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, 5 to 15. The excess of attendance over the enumeration in Massachusetts, indicates that pupils are permitted to attend school who have not as yet reached, or who have passed, the legal school age.

The percentage of population between the ages of 5 and 15 enrolled in the schools in 1872-3 was, in Alabama, 38; Delaware, 59; Florida, 42; Maine, 90; Maryland, 67; Mississippi, 70; Missouri, 88; North Carolina, 51; South Carolina, 46; Rhode Island, 91; Tennessee, 50; Texas, 56; Virginia, 51; West Virginia, 67.

In England and Wales, the average attendance at the public schools, in 1873, was about 28 per cent of the population of school age (between 3 and 13); and about 69 per cent of the total enrollment; and, consequently, the enrollment was about 41 per cent of the school population. Under the compulsory education act in force in that country, the school attendance had considerably increased. (See ENGLAND.) A careful comparison of the census returns of different countries shows that, on the average, the children between the ages of 6 and 12 constitute about 17 per cent of the entire population. Comparing this rate with the following percentages of school attendance as compared with population, we may ascertain approximatively the relative rate of attendance in each country. In Saxony the school attendance is about 20 per cent; in Prussia, 15 per cent; in Norway, 14 per cent; in the Netherlands, 13 per cent; in Denmark, 13 per cent; in Scotland and Protestant Switzerfand, 11 per cent; in Belglum, 11 per cent; in Austria, 10 per cent; in England, 9 per cent; in Ireland and Catholic Switzerland, 7 per cent ; in France, 5 per cent; in Portugal, 14 per cent; in Italy, 1 per cent; in Greece, as 1 to 118; in Spain, as 1 to 170; and in Russia, as 1 to 700.

Mr. Francis Adams, in his work on the Free School System of the United States (London, 1875), remarks, in connection with a comparison of the school attendance in this country with that of England: "While in England we have a more select enrollment, and, consequently, a more regular attendance than in many of the States, some of them the principal Northern and Western States-yet, so far as concerns our hold upon the great mass of the population, we stand only on a level with some of the most backward of the old

power to recall at will our mental impressions and acquisitions is perhaps directly in proportion to the attention with which the associations binding them together were formed. When these are feeble, loose, accidental, and formed with little volition, the mind will have but an imperfect control of its thoughts, and will thus be wanting in the chief quality of a sound intellectual character.

Attention requires a vigorous exercise of the brain, and, therefore, is, more or less, dependent upon the physical condition. When this has been exhausted by labor, either bodily or mental, or weakened by disease, attention is scarcely possible; and the effort to give it is injurious, because it induces still farther nervous pros tration. Neither should deep attention be exerted or attempted immediately after a hearty meal. The nervous energy is then directed to the digestive functions, which active cerebration will greatly disturb. Hence, the diet of a student should be light, but nutritious. The brain should also be supplied with thoroughly oxygenated blood. No one can think well in an impure atmosphere, especially if it is contaminated by the breathing of many persons. In this way, children often suffer a serious loss of health. They are crowded in apartments too small for the number to be accommodated, and very imperfectly ventilated; and, at the same time, are expected to give close and earnest attention to the subjects of instruction. This is a physical impossibility, and the attempt to do it must always be followed by disastrous results. In no respect has the aphorism, "A sound mind in a sound body" a more forcible application than to the exercise of attention. For what contrast can be stronger than that presented by the poor wretch whom disease has bereft of every mental state but wandering thoughts or absolute vacuity, and the man of sound health and a welltrained mind, who is ready at will to concentrate all his intellectual energies upon a given subject, and to keep them steadily fixed upon it until the object of his investigations has been attained! (See INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.)

AUGUSTANA COLLEGE was founded at Paxton, Ill., in 1863, by the Swedish Augustana Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. It was removed to Rock Island, Ill., in 1875, where it has buildings, grounds, and apparatus estimated at $50,000 in value. It has a library of 7000 volumes, a faculty of seven professors and two tutors, and 110 students, of whom 92 are in the collegiate department. The chief object of this college is to afford to young men a thorough education at the lowest possible rates (about $100 per annum for tuition, board, and room), and also to prepare young men for the theological seminary connected with it, and for teaching in the parochial schools of the Swedish Lutheran congregations. The Rev. T. N. Hasselquist, D.D., is the president. (1876.)

AUGUSTINE, Saint (Lat. Aurelius Augustinus), a celebrated doctor of the Latin church, and one of the greatest of Christian

teachers and theologians, was born Nov. 13., 37-4, at Tagaste, in Numidia, the modern Algeria. His father, Patricius, was a pagan; his mother, Monica, a fervid christian. He was sent by his father to the famous school of Madaura, and after the death of his father continued his studies at Carthage. His life at this time was very licentious; but he never forgot the pious instructions which his mother had given him, nor the devotional exercises to which she had accustomed him. Dissatisfied with the religious systems of the ancient Greeks and Romans, as well as with the Jewish and Christian scriptures, he tried to find rest for his mind in the Manichean system. At Rome, to which he went at the age of 29, he achieved great reputation as a teacher of eloquence. Six months later, he was called to Milan as a teacher of rhetoric. His intercourse with Saint Ambrose, who was then bishop of Milan, and the incessant entreaties of his mother, shook his faith in Manicheism, and, in 387, brought about his conversion to Christianity. He became at once one of the most prominent writers of the Christian church; and after spending three years in seclusion at his birthplace Tagaste, he was obliged, in compliance with the demand of the people of the neighboring town of Hippo, to take orders, so that he might assist bishop Valerius in his failing age. After the death of Valerius, in 395, he was elected his successor, and continued bishop of Hippo till his death, in 430. His reputation as a theological writer, soon filled the entire church, and his influence upon theological doctrine and upon the theological schools of the Christian world proved to be greater than that of any one who had preceded him.

The most famous of all the numerous works of Augustine, the Confessions, has also a great educational interest, as it contains the reflections of one of the most distinguished scholars of the Christian church on his own education. He demonstrates, in the clearest light, the strong and imperishable influence of maternal education upon the whole after life of man; and from his touching account of the fierce conflict between the highest intellectual and philosophical aspirations on the one hand, and moral weakness on the other, many prominent teachers have professed to have learned more than from the study of many theories of education.-Augustine followed Tertullian in advocating a rigid exclusion of pagan authors from the education of young Christians. Especially did he oppose the reading of the "impious fables of the poets, the polished lies of the rhetoricians, and the verbose subtleties of the philosophers;" but the reading of the historians he did not absolutely object to. This question as to the use of pagan classics in Christian schools has continued to be a lively controversy in the Christian church; and, even in the nineteenth century, the views of Tertullian and Augustine have found many defenders. (See CHRISTIAN CLASSICS.)

By the establishment of a training institution for candidates for the priesthood, Augustine laid the foundation of episcopal seminaries, and gave a

numbered 881, with 11,024 male and 13,595 female scholars, and 528 male and 1236 female teachers. The number of grammar schools and colleges was 7, of which 2 were Episcopalian, 3 Presbyterian, 1 Methodist, and 1 Roman Catholic. The total number of masters in these colleges and grammar schools was 77, the total number of students 1,162. Under the new educational act, the instruction in the state schools is free, secular, and compulsory. The governing power is in the hands of a minister of education, assisted by a secretary. Each school is under periodical inspection. The teachers are required to pass an examination, and are paid by fixed salaries; but they also receive the fees of the scholars, and have a further allowance according to the progress made by the scholars under their charge. The number of Sunday-schools was 1,381; Episcopalian 262, Presbyterian 308, Wesleyan 324, Primitive Methodist 73, Congregationalist 54, Baptist 59, Roman Catholic 171; with 111,540 scholars and 11,815 teachers.

South Australia. The central board of Education consists of 7 members; the officers are 3 inspectors and a secretary. The number of licensed schools open at the close of 1874 was 320, with 17,426 enrolled pupils, and 315 teachers.

West Australia. - The legislative council in 1870 passed an education act, based upon the principle of Foster's act, now in operation in England. Schools are divided into elementary and assisted schools. The former are maintained wholly at the cost of the colony, the latter are private, but may receive a capitation grant on submitting to government inspection for secular results, and to the observance of a strict conscience clause during the four hours of secular instruction enjoined by the Act. The elementary schools are under the control and supervision of a central board appointed by the governor, and the local district boards elected by the electors. Attendance at school may be enforced by the local boards. In the elementary schools, one hour a day is devoted, under the provisions of a conscience clause, to reading the Bible or other religious books approved by the board; but no catechism or religious formulary of any kind can be used; and the Bible must be read, if at all, without note or comment. In 1874, the number of national and assisted schools was 85, with an average attendance of over 3,000. There is a Church of England collegiate school in Perth, under the patronage of the bishop.

Queensland. Education is free. The property of the schools, and the land granted for school purposes, are vested in a board of education. Aid is granted to schools not established by the board, on complying with certain regulations. The state also assists in the establishment of grammar schools, whenever a district_raises a sum for this purpose by subscription. In 1874, there were 203 primary schools, with 590 teachers, and 29,012 scholars. There were also 62 private schools, with 118 teachers and 2,123 scholars. The parliamentary appropriation for

educational purposes in 1874 was £72,000, the local subscriptions were £3,116. The property vested in the board was valued at £83,358.

Tasmania. The educational system is under the management of a council, and the attendance of children at school is compulsory. The number of schools supported by the government was, in 1874, 147, average attendance 7,970, scholars enrolled 12,158, teachers 108 male and 116 female, besides 39 pupil teachers and paid monitors. There are four schools of a higher grade. The number of sunday schools is 112, with 1,112 teachers and 10,011 scholars.

In New Zealand, each province has its own laws and regulations. To both national and denominational schools, in some cases, state aid is given; in others, it is limited to national schools. Dunedin has a university. In 1871, out of children from 5 to 15 years of age, 59 in every hundred could read and write, and 72 were attending school. The increase in attendance from 1872 to 1874 was very large. The number of common schools, in 1874, was 494, of colleges and grammar schools 4, and of private schools 182; total 680, having an attendance of 41,027 scholars, of whom 21,774 were males, and 19,253 females. Of the entire attendance, 33,790 belonged to the common schools; 498, to the colleges and grammar schools; and 6,739, to private schools. Besides these, there were 47 native schools, with 68 teachers and 1,244 scholars.

AUSTRIA (Germ. Oesterreich or Oestreich, eastern empire), officially designated since 1868 as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, has an area of 240,381 sq. m., and a population, according to the last census, in 1869, of 35,904,435. The empire now consists of two main divisions, Austria proper and Hungary, each of which has the legislative and administrative control of its own educational affairs. In this article we shall treat only of Austria proper, called also Cisleithania, because the small river Leitha constitutes part of the frontier between it and Hungary. For the rest, see HUNGARY.

Austria proper, or Cisleithania, consists of 14 provinces with an aggregate area of 115,925 sq. m., and a population numbering, according to the census of 1869, 20,217,531, and estimated at the close of 1874 at 21,169,341. The provinces formerly were either independent, or belonged to different states, and they still are inhabited by people of various nationalities. An official census of the nationalities has not been taken since 1850; but their comparative strength is well known, and the estimates made by writers on this subject substantially agree. The Germans number about 7,109,000, or 35,16 per cent; the Czechs and Slovacks, 4,719,000, or 23,34 per cent; the Poles, 2,444,000, or 12,09 per cent; the Ruthenians, 2,585,000, or 12,80 per cent; the Slovens or Winds, 1,196,200, or 5,92 per cent; the Croats or Serbs, 522,400, or 2,58 per cent; the Magyars, 17,700, or 0,09 per cent; the Italians, 588,000, or 2,91 per cent; the Roumanians, 207,900, or 1,02 per cent; the Jews, 820,000, or 4,05 per cent. Two of the provinces,