Page images
PDF
EPUB

ACADEMY

academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, of fine arts, and, especially, of music. In England and the United States, the national high schools for the education of military and naval officers are called academies. Thus, England has the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the United States, the Military Academy at West Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. In the United States, the name has also been assumed by a large number of secondary schools, which are designed to prepare their pupils for colleges, or to impart a general knowledge of the common and higher branches of education. As they are, in nearly all cases, private institutions, independent of any control by state boards, their courses of instruction widely differ, ranging from the lowest primary class to the highest classes of grammar and high schools. They are usually both boarding and day schools.

[ocr errors]
[ocr errors]
[blocks in formation]

and their influence on other educational insti-
tutions has been considerable. The Académie
française is the highest authority upon every
thing relating to the niceties of the French lan-
guage, to grammar, and the publication of the
French classics. The Académie des inscriptions
et belles lettres embraces among the objects of
its attention comparative philology. Like the
French Institute, the academies in the capitals of
Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Russia, and other
countries, have gradually become great national
centers for the promotion of science and art;
but no such centralization has been effected in
Italy, Germany, England, or the United States.
In England, the learned corporations correspond-
ing to the continental academies of sciences have
generally the name society or association. Eng-
land proper has, however, a royal academy of arts
(founded in 1765, re-organized in 1768) and a
royal academy of music (established in 1822);
and in Edinburgh, there is a royal academy of
yachting (founded in 1754). In Ireland, the name
academy, according to its continental use, has
been adopted for the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Dublin (founded in 1782). In the United
States of America there are also a number of
learned societies to which the name academy,
in the sense used on the continent of Europe,
has been applied. The following societies are
called academies: The American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, at Boston (founded in 1780),
the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences
(founded in 1799), the Academy of Natural
Science in Philadelphia (founded in 1818), the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (established
in 1807), the National Academy of Design, at
New York (founded in 1828); the Medical Acad-
emy of New York. The National Academy of
Sciences was incorporated by Congress, March
3d, 1863. In New York, Philadelphia, Brook-
lyn, Chicago, and other large cities, the princi-
pal opera house is called the Academy of Music.

The name academy is also employed to designate associations of learned men for the advancement of science and art. Some of these associations are of an entirely private character, others have been founded by the state. The first academy of this kind was the Museum of Alexandria, in Egypt, which was founded by Ptolemy Soter. After its model, the Jews, toward the close of the first century of the Christian era, began to establish academies for the develop ment of Talmudic science. Later, the Arabian caliphs established academies at their places of residence, to show their interest in the promotion of science. Efforts to establish Christian academies of this kind were made by Gregory the Great and Charlemagne, but both failed. It was not until the middle of the fifteenth century, that associations of this kind were formed in Italy for the purpose of fostering the free development of science and art, in opposition to the rigid conservatism of the monastic and ecclesiastical schools. They gave special attention to the cultivation of the Italian language and literature. It was es- ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as pecially the Accademia della Crusca, founded at contrasted with culture, refers to those educaFlorence by the poet Grazzini, to which the tional acquirements which fit a person for certain Italian language is indebted for its purification special activities, while culture has reference to and development. From Italy, these institutions the general improvement of the character or spread to the other countries of Europe; and, as mental faculties. Hence the expression "external they became the centers of literary activity, they accomplishments." or "ornamental accomplishexercised every-where a prominent influence ments," such as skill in foreign languages, music, upon the intellectual progress of the several drawing, painting, dancing, etc. Involved in this countries, and, especially, upon the improvement application of the term, is the idea of display, or and regulation of the native tongue. Prominent the ability to please, or the power to awaken adamong these academies, was the Académie fram- miration in the beholder. Thus in the Spectator çaise, instituted, in 1635, by Cardinal Riche- we find the expression "the visible graces of lieu. In 1795, it was united with three other speech and the dumb eloquence of motion," as French academies into the Institut national, indicating the accomplishments of a pleasing adthe name of which was changed by Louis XVI. dress and a graceful carriage. into Institut de France. The Institute con- Accomplishments are either purely intellectsisted then of four academies: (1) l'Académie ual, as that of language, or partly or wholly française, (2) l'Académie des inscriptions et artistic, such as music, drawing, dancing, etc. In belles lettres, (3) l'Académie des sciences, (4) the education of boys, fencing and boxing were l'Académie des beaux arts. A fifth academy, formerly considered as indispensable accomplishl'Académie des sciences morales et politiques, ments; but of these, at the present time, rowing was added in 1832. These academies are among seems to take precedence, as contributing to a the most important of the kind in the world, healthy development of the physical system.

[blocks in formation]

In many classes of schools, particularly in private seminaries, the acquisition of certain ornamental accomplishments constitutes the chief end of education. Were these accomplishments based on a solid culture of the intellectual and moral nature, they would be very proper and desirable; but being merely showy and superficial, they constitute a perversion of the true end of education. Thus Hannah More remarks: "In training our daughters, should we not carefully cultivate intellect, implant religion, and cherish modesty? Then, whatever is engaging in manners would be the natural result of whatever is just in sentiment and correct in principle. Softness would grow out of humility, and external delicacy would spring from purity of heart." The folly and wrong of giving this exclusive attention to mere accomplishments have very frequently been a subject of satirical invective. Says Sydney Smith: "A woman of accomplishments may entertain those who have the pleasure of knowing her for half an hour with great brilliancy; but a mind full of ideas. and with that elastic spring which the love of knowledge only can convey, is a perpetual source of exhilaration and amusement to all that come within its reach. Therefore, instead of hanging the understanding of a woman upon walls, or hearing it vibrate upon strings, instead of seeing it in clouds, or hearing it in the wind, we would make it the first spring and ornament of society, by enriching it with attainments, upon which alone such power depends." Goldsmith also inveighed severely against this practice in his time. "Another passion," he says, "which the present age is apt to run into is, to make children learn all things, the languages, the sciences, music, the exercises, and painting. Thus the child soon becomes a talker in all, but a master in none. He thus acquires a superficial fondness for everything, and only shows his ignorance, when he attempts to exhibit his skill." The tendency of the present time, in what is called fashionable education, is equally subject to the same unfavorable criticism. Accomplishments, in the first stages of education, are to be regarded as secondary to the solid improvement of the mind. Those rudimentary attainments which constitute the basis of all school education, and are indispensable to any further progress, namely, reading, spelling, writing, and arithmetic, must of course be made; to which should be added the ability to use one's own language, in speaking and writing, with tolerable ease and propriety. A common-school education should give great prominence to these, as not only constituting the acquirements most generally needed for success in life, but as placing in the hands of the pupils the keys to future progress in learning.

Accomplishment, being derived from the French accomplir, to finish or complete, may be contrasted with smattering, a mere superficial acquirement of some of the prominent or rudimental parts of any subject. No educational scheme should admit of the study of any branch of knowledge which cannot, under the given

ADAMS

circumstances and in the time proposed, be accomplished so as to give the pupils who are to pursue it, a thorough knowledge of the subject. as well as the ability to apply it to some practical purpose. The peculiar talent, or bent of mind, of children should be regarded, in the attempt to bestow upon them ornamental accomplishments, such as music and drawing, except such elementary portions of these arts as are within the capacity of all, and which constitute. not indeed special accomplishments, but a part of that general culture which the most elementary education should bestow. (See CULTURE.) ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowledge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the primary object; but, in the earlier stages of education, it is generally secondary, the educative value of the process taking precedence of the practical importance of the knowledge communicated. The acquisition of new ideas must always, more or less, improve the mind by affording additional material for the exercise of its various faculties; but, in education, what particular faculties are concerned in the study of any subject or branch of knowledge, is a matter of paramount importance, and therefore should never be lost sight of by the teacher. Where this is disregarded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere rote-teaching; and the teacher will often rest satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formulæ of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition of new ideas, on which alone the improvement of the mind depends.

ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. ȧкpoaμaTikóç, to be heard, designed for hearing only), a name originally applied to the esoteric teachings of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to designate such as were confined to their immediate hearers, and not committed to writing. Later, the term has been applied to a system of instruction in which the teacher speaks and the pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity of age and of considerable progress in intellectual culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system. (See LECTURE.)

ADAM, Alexander, LL. D., was born in Scotland, in 1741, and died in 1809. He attained a high distinction as a teacher while Rector of the High School at Edinburgh (1768-1808). He was also the author of several educational text-books, among which his Roman Antiquities (1791) has been very extensively used in this country and in Great Britain.

ADAMS, John, LL. D., was born in Canterbury, Ct., in 1772, and died in Jacksonville, Ill., in 1863. He was noted both as a teacher and a philanthropist. After graduating at Yale College, in 1795, he taught the academy in his native town, and subsequently other schools, till, in 1810, he became principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in which_position he continued for twenty-three years. In 1833, he removed to Illinois, and was very active in effecting improvements in the school system of that

ADRIAN COLLEGE

State. His labors in connection with various benevolent institutions in both States, were numerous and important. Through his efforts, a large number of Sunday-schools were established in his adopted State. Many essays and other publications on education attest the intelligence and ability with which he devoted himself to the training of the young.

ADRIAN COLLEGE, at Adrian, Mich., was founded in 1859, by the Methodists. The number of students is about 200, males and females, about one fourth of whom belong to the collegiate department. It has a classical and a scientific course of instruction, a school of theology, a school of music, and a normal class. Its corps of instructors numbers twelve, and it has one endowed professorship. The number of volumes in its library is about 1000; its endow ment is $100,000. Rev. G. B McElroy, D. D., is the president of the Institution (1876). The tuition fee is very small.

[blocks in formation]

gen

and girls to the 16th or 18th year of age. Sev-
eral states made attendance at these schools ob-
ligatory for all boys and girls who had left the
elementary school and not entered any higher
school. Special attention has been given to
schools of this class in Austria, where the gov-.
ernment has established "reviewing schools
(Wiederholungsschulen.) (See AUSTRIA.) As the
ordinary Sunday or reviewing school was found
to be insufficient, especially for young me.
chanics, special classes or schools were organized
in which particularly instruction in drawing
was given. The attendance at these schools is
always voluntary; in most of them the scholars
have to pay moderate fees; instruction is
erally given on Sunday mornings, and, in most
schools, is confined to writing, arithmetic, and
drawing. In some of the German states, espe-
cially in Würtemberg, an evening school on
week-days has been added to the Sunday-school;
and thus a great impulse has been given for the
further development of industrial schools for
adults. (See INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS.) The Schools
for Adults established in other European countries.
are mostly evening industrial schools.
United States, evening schools have been very ex-,
tensively introduced, to give to all adults an op-
portunity of obtaining the same education as
children receive during the day; and some of
the larger cities afford in these evening high
schools instruction in the studies of a higher
grade. (See EVENING SCHOOLS.)

ADULTS, Schools for. The proper time to obtain instruction is during the periods of boyhood or girlhood, and youth. (See AGE IN EDUCATION.) It is in the interest of states as well as of families and individuals, that, as much as possible, every child, not prevented by physical disabilities, should have its share in the instruction provided by public legislation and private effort. The majority of states have even deemed it a duty to make education compulsory, in order to render it universal. (See COMPULSORY EDUCATION.) It is also the general tendency of educational legislation to extend the legal school age to the utmost, in order to make the education of the school population as thorough as possible. (See SCHOOL AGE.) Still, though boyhood and youth are the proper ages for instruction, the need of special schools for adults has always been deeply felt. Though modern legislation has succeeded in some countries in almost wholly extinguishing illiteracy (see ILLITERACY), the number of adults whose education, during the proper age. has either been entirely insufficient, or who find themselves on entering life, without the requisite amount of information specially needed in their several avocations, remains as great as ever, and is even likely to increase, as the standard of popular education becomes more elevated. Systematic reading, instruction by private teachers, and, more recently, popular lectures, are among the principal agencies for supplementing the deficiencies of school education. Efforts have, however, not been wanting in many states to establish schools for adults for the special purpose of giving to those who have left the public schools and entered into practical life, a suitable opportunity to supply the deficiency of their school education. Many German states began in the 18th century to establish Sunday-schools in | which, besides religious education, a review of the instruction given in the elementary school was provided for. As the school age, in the German states, only extended to the 14th year, a Į Sunday-school was specially provided for boys CULTURE,

In the

ADVENTISTS. This is the name of several organizations of American Christians, the distinctive doctrine of whom is the belief in the speedy second advent of Christ, and the end of the world. In 1875, there were four different organizations: (1) The Advent Christian Association; (2) The American Millennial Association (Evangel-ical Adventists); (3) The Life and Advent Union; (4) The Seventh Day Adventists. The churches of this denomination were formerly almost wholly independent, and had fewer church boards for common interests than most of the other religious denominations of the United States. The greatest advance in point of organization has been made by the Seventh Day Adventists. The subject of education and the founding of a denominational school was brought to the attention of the members of this denomination by Elder James White and wife, in the early part of 1872. The matter was referred to a General Committee, who, during the summer and autumn of 1873, solicited subscriptions to this enterprise, obtaining pledges for over $54,000. On the 16th of March, 1874. an association was formed, under the law of Michigan, "for the incorporation of institutions of learning;" and a school edifice, capable of accommodating between four and five hundred students, was finished in 1875.—See Annual Cyclopedia, 1875, art. Adventists; also Seventh Day Adventists; a brief sketch of their Origin, Progress, and Principles (Battle Creek, 1874).

ESTHETIC CULTURE. See ESTHETIC

[blocks in formation]

AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real. genuine, and natural, is carefully to be guarded against in the education of the young. In certain peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to the formation of habits of affectation in manners and speech. This tendency, however, rarely shows itself at an early age. Children generally yield to their natural impulses, and do not assume or feign what they do not feel, or, to use a common expression, "put on airs." Their mode of training, however, may tend to this, particularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural mode of expression in phraseology or pronunciation, in the attempt to make them excessively precise in such matters. Some styles of reading and elocution may lead to this characteristic; and hence the importance of adopting methods that, in all respects, correspond to the prevailing usage. Certainly, nothing can be more disgusting than the forced imitation of peculiar and unnatural models of conceived propriety of speech and manners, which we sometimes find to prevail among the pupils of certain schools, or the "mincing airs" which are often assumed by those, both male and female, but particularly the latter, who affect to belong to the best society, and hence arrogate to themselves a superior degree of refinement. The standard of the educator should be, in every respect, that ease, grace, simplicity, and beauty that belong to what is natural; and every tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be promptly and sternly repressed. Locke says: "Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much better than an artificial ungracefulness, and such studied ways of being ill-fashioned. The want of an accomplishment, or some defect in our behavior, coming short of the utmost gracefulness, often scapes observation; but affectation in any part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to our defects, and never fails to make us to be taken notice of, either as wanting sense or wanting sincerity.' See LOCKE, Thoughts concerning Education.

AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph. This eminent naturalist and teacher was born at Motiers, near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, May 28., 1807, and died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14., 1873. His ancestors were Huguenots, driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. His father was the pastor of a protestant parish; his mother, the daughter of a physician. Under the latter he received his first education till the age of eleven, when he was sent to the gymnasium at Bienne, where he remained four years. His subsequent studies were pursued at the college of Lausanne, the medical school of Zurich, and the universities of Heidelberg and Munich. At the latter place, he particularly distinguished himself for his attainments in natural history. At Paris, he made the acquaintance of Humboldt and Cuvier, both of whom held him in high esteem for his talents and scientific acquirements. In 1846, he came to the United States, being invited to deliver a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute, in Boston. The next year, he accepted the appointment of

AGE

professor of zoology and geology in the Lawrence Scientific School, then just established. He commenced his duties in 1848, and settled permanently in the United States, where his greatest fame was achieved by his numerous labors as a naturalist and a scientific lecturer and teacher. The establishment of the Anderson School of Natural History on Penikese Island in 1873, was almost the last act of his life. The means for founding this school were furnished by Mr. John Anderson, a generous and public-spirited citizen of New York, who not only devoted for this object the island of Penikese, but the sum of $50,000, as a permanent endowment. Agassiz had long advocated the establishment of such a school for the special instruction of teachers in marine zoology; and during the summer of 1873, he devoted his time and energies to this institution, being present at every exercise and lecture, and the constant companion of the students. His chief publications were Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, 1833-1844; Études sur les glaciers, 1840; Systeme glaciaire, 1847, and Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. Though chiefly eminent as a naturalist, and particularly in the department of ichthyology, he was an accomplished linguist, being versed in six languages. He read Plato and Aristotle in the original, wrote several works in elegant Latin, and was a good Hebraist. French and German were to him vernacular tongues, and he could speak and write the English language with ease and correctness. He was a natural teacher, fond of giving instruction, patient and sympathetic. overflowing with an earnest love for his subject, and having a mind replete with stores of information. His voice, look, and manner at once gained the attention of his pupils: and the clearness of his explanations as well as the fluency of his delivery gave interest to every subject upon which he spoke. His skill in ready graphic delineations with chalk and blackboard was astonishing, and greatly contributed to the effectiveness of his teaching. Few have ever made such rich additions to the stores of science, or have been more zealous in diffusing the benefits of knowledge among mankind. His example as a teacher has been of very great value, since his system was to teach from natural objects rather than from books-to enable the pupil to acquire an experience of his own before presenting to his mind the results of the experience and observation of others. His own assumed title. "Louis Agassiz-Teacher," was the one of which he seemed to be most proud ; and all teachers should cherish the example which he set, as the true means of success.

AGE, in Education. The life of man has been variously divided into periods, or ages. Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Macrobius ten, different ages, while others have preferred a division into five, six, seven, or eight. With regard to the education of man, one great turning point stands forth so conspicuously, that teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad

line of demarcation, into whatever number of periods they have thought it proper to divide human life. This turning-point in life is the period when man passes from the age of youth into that of virility. The physical development at this time has become complete; in social life both sexes have attained majority; and the education of the young man or woman for the career that has been selected, is, in the main, concluded. Up to this time, the education of man is conducted by others, chiefly parents and teachers; henceforward, he is expected to educate himself, and to assume the education of others.

During the period of life when man is dependent upon others for his education, three different ages are broadly distinguished.-childhood, boyhood or girlhood, and youth. These are marked, in the physical development of the body, by the shedding of teeth, the entrance of puberty, and the setting in of virility. The process of mental development in these three ages is as different as the physical basis; and, accordingly, each of them demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical

treatment.

Childhood, which embraces the first seven years of life, is characterized by the rapid growth and development of the organs of the body. At the age of seven a child weighs about six times as much as at its birth, and it has attained one half of the stature, and about one third or one fourth of the weight of the grown man. The mind is, during this period, more receptive than selfactive; the only manifestations of self-activity being found in the efforts to retain and arrange the impressions which have been received. All pedagogical influence upon the pupil in this age can be only of a preparatory character. The body must be guarded against injuries, and must have opportunities for a vigorous and manifold development. The mind must be preserved from debasing, weakening, or over-exciting influences, and must be kept open for any thing that is conducive to the development of its faculties; and, in order not to become sated and confused, it must learn to distinguish what is important from the less important. As the child is thoroughly dependent upon its educator and unable to direct its own exertions, it should be made to understand as clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own will to that of its educators can be followed by only evil consequences. It should, therefore, be taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, for fear has a repressive influence upon the development of the mental faculties, but an obedience springing from confidence in the superior wisdom and experience of the teacher, and from love produced by his kindness. The natural educators of the child are the parents, especially the mother; but, toward the close of this age, systematic teaching by a professional teacher begins. Legislation in regard to the school age differs considerably in different countries. In some, children are sent to the public schools when they are four years of age; in others, not until they are seven. (See SCHOOL

AGE.) Of course, instruction at such an age must be limited to the most elementary rudiments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. The method should be thoroughly adapted to the mental condition of the child, and modern educators are agreed in recognizing the importance of object teaching for the first stages of a child's instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially intended as introductory to the regular primary school, is the kindergarten, founded by Froebel. The astonishing rapidity with which it has spread through all the countries of the civilized world, and found admission into educational systems otherwise radically at variance, seems to prove it to be a great improvement in elementary education. (See KINDERGARTEN.)

Boyhood or girlhood embraces the time from the 7th to the 14th year of age. In the development of the body, this age is characterized by the appearance of the permanent teeth, by the completed growth of the brain, and by the first consciousness of sexual difference. Boys and girls long for the free and frequent exercise of their muscular systems. At the beginning of this age, girls like to take an active part in the plays of the boys; but they soon show a preference for more quiet occupations and less publicity; while, on the other hand, boys manifest an increased interest in noisy and wild sports. It is among the prime duties of the educators of this age, to keep the development of the natural desires and aspirations of the two sexes within the right channels. The minds of boys and girls afford many proofs of independent thought and activity. The company of adults is not sought for by them as eagerly as before, but they feel entire satisfaction in the society of children of their own age. They think, as yet, little of the realities of life and of their future careers; but their plays give more evidence, than before, of plan, serious thought, and perseverance, and generally indicate the faculties with which they have been most strongly endowed; each child, in this way, foreboding to some extent its future career. It is of great importance that the educator should not only understand the peculiar nature of this age in general, but that he should thoroughly know the character of each individual; for the faults which are peculiar to this age are best overcome in individual cases, if the educator knows how to make the right kind of appeal to those good qualities of his pupils which are most strongly developed. In arranging a course of instruction for this age, it must be specially remembered that the minds of boys and girls are predominantly receptive. The memory readily receives and faithfully retains impressions; and this, therefore, is the right time for learning a foreign language and geographical and historical facts. The independence of mind peculiar to this age shows itself at the same time in the growth of imagination, which awakens in the boy a lively interest in all that is great and extraordinary in history. On many questions relating to the education proper for this age, educators still differ. Prominent among these

« ՆախորդըՇարունակել »