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BACON

of moral perfection, which were so sublime that they never could be more than theories; in attempts to solve insoluble enigmas; in exhortations to the attainment of unattainable frames of mind. It could not condescend to the humble office of ministering to the comfort of human beings." Bacon held that all knowledge must be obtained by a careful and unprejudiced induction from facts. Hence the importance of experiment; for without experiment man may indeed stumble on the discovery of truth, but by experiment inventions are made. Bacon," says Kuno Fischer, "is the philosopher, not simply of experience, but of invention. His only endeavor is philosophically to comprehend and fortify the inventive spirit of man. From this point alone is his opposition to antiquity to be explained." Bacon's career commenced at a time when a great intellectual revolution was already in progress. The Aristotelian philosophy so called, which was indeed a perversion of Aristotle's teachings, and the senseless attempt to employ the syllogism as an instrument of discovery, had already disgusted a large number of active minds, as being utterly barren of fruit. As Macaulay remarks," Before the birth of Bacon, the empire of the scholastic philosophy had been shaken to its foundation. Antiquity, prescription, the sound of great names had ceased to awe mankind." Bacon's mind was so constituted as to sympathize at once with this changed condition of things; and throwing the weight of his vast intellect against the already tottering fabric, he precipitated its fall. As Aristotle analyzed the method of deductive reasoning, so Bacon explained the principles and method of induction, proving it to be the great instrument, or organon, for the discovery of truth and the improvement of the condition of humanity. The full title of his great work is Norum Organum, sive Indicia Vera de Interpretatione Nature et Regno Hominis. (The New Organon, or True Directions concerning the Interpretation of Nature and the Kingdom of Man.) The key to the whole philosophy is contained in the first of the aphorisms of which it is composed : Man, being the servant and interpreter of nature, can do and understand so much, and so much only, as he has observed, in fact or in thought, of the course of nature; beyond this he neither knows any thing nor can do any thing." Previous to the publication of this work, he had published The Advancement of Learning (1605), which was the germ of De Augmentis Scientiarum, published in 1623. These and other works, published or proposed by him, were to constitute an Instauratio Magna-a grand re-establishment not only of the true method of scientific investigation but of science itself, in all its varied departments. Modern discovery and invention are to a great extent the offspring of this splendid gift of human genius. Bacon's most popular work was the Essays. originally published in 1597, but afterwards enlarged and improved. Dugald Stewart has said of this work, "It may be read from beginning to end in a few hours, and yet after the twentieth reading, one seldom

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BAHRDT

fails to remark in it something overlooked before." In his essay on Education, Bacon refers all its efficacy to custom, or habit: "Certainly custom is most perfect when it beginneth in young years: this we call education; which is, in effect, but an early custom." But Bacon's contribution to education does not consist in any particular precepts concerning it or any special treatment of that subject; but in the general effect of his philosophical views, in setting free the human mind from errors and prejudices, and placing it on the direct road which leads to scientific truth. The best edition of Bacon's works is that edited by Spedding, Ellis, and Heath, vols. I.-xv. (London and Boston, 1858-1861). In this is contained the life of Bacon by William Rawley, D.D., his chaplain.— See also MACAULAY's Essays, s. v. Bacon; HEPWORTH, Personal History of Lord Bacon (London, 1859); RÉMUSAT, Bacon, sa vie et son influence (Paris, 1857); KUNO FISCHER, Francis Bacon con Verulam (2d edit., Leipsic, 1875), which has been translated into English by Jons OXENFORD (London, 1857); American Journal of Education, vol. IV. (1829), passim. BADEN. See GERMANY.

BAHRDT, Carl Friedrich, a German professor and scholar, was born in 1741, and died in 1792. As professor of theology at the universities of Leipsic, Erfurt, and Giessen, he was regarded as one of the foremost representatives of the theological rationalism which prevailed at that time. As his dissolute life and his fondness for violent theological quarrels made his position as professor of theology impossible, he eagerly accepted, in 1775, the management of a philanthropin founded by Herr v. Salis at Marschlins, in the Swiss canton of Grisons. (See PHILANTHROPIN.) As he soon quarreled with his patron, his connection with this institution lasted only one year; but having been appointed superintendent-general at Dürkheim, he established, in May 1777, a new philanthropin in the neighboring castle at Heidesheim. This attempt was likewise unsuccessful, and the new philanthropin on the brink of ruin, when Bahrdt was suddenly summoned before the Reichshofrath (Imperial Court Council) for teaching doctrines not in accord with any of the three churches recognized in the empire, and, without any trial, deprived of all his offices. The unfairness of this treatment gained for him a great deal of sympathy, and from the Prussian government an appointment as professor at the university of Halle; but in consequence of the unsteadiness of his habits, he held this position likewise only a short time, and lost with it the esteem of nearly all who knew him. Bahrdt was one of the most gifted men of his age, and but for his total want of moral character, would undoubtedly have risen to great eminence, both as an educational writer and a practical educator. He founded two educational periodicals, entitled Literarisches Correspondenz- und Intelligenzblatt (1776) and Pädagogisches Wochenblatt (1778), which clearly indicate the rare talent of the editor, but neither of which survived the first year of

BALDWIN UNIVERSITY

its existence. The disrespect which was generally felt for Bahrdt, greatly injured the entire school of Philanthropinists. He published an autobioggraphy, entitled Dr. Bahrdi's history of his life, his opinions and his vicissitudes (4 vols., Brunswick, 1790), which is of considerable value for the information it gives of the educational movements of those times.-See LEYSER, Karl Friedrich Bahrdt (2d edit., Neustadt, 1870).

BALDWIN UNIVERSITY, at Berea, Ohio, was established in 1846 as Baldwin Institute, for the education of both sexes, by the North Ohio conference of the Methodist Episcopal church. Ten years afterward, it was chartered as a university under its present name. Its design is to provide the means of a thorough general education, or to afford to students a complete scientific basis for the various industrial pursuits. It has a scientific and a classical department, in each of which there are preparatory and collegiate classes. There is also a college of pharmacy connected with the institution. It received a valuable endowment in quarry land from John Baldwin, after whom it was named. Its successive presidents have been John Wheeler, D.D., from 1856 to 1871; W. D. Godman, D.D., from 1871 to 1875; and A. Schuyler, LL. D., from 1875. The number of students in the institution, in 1875-76, was 180. The tuition is free.

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The school age is from 6 to 18; and the number of children in the city between those ages was reported, in the census of 1870, as 77,737. School System, · The system consists of a school board of twenty members-one for each ward of the city; a city superintendent, and assistant superintendent; a city college; two female high schools; a Saturday normal class; 19 male and 20 female grammar schools; 61 primary schools; 10 evening schools, of which 4 are colored; and 11 day schools for colored children. The Commissioners of Public Schools, constituting the school-board, are appointed by the two branches of the city council assembled in convention, one commissioner being selected from each ward. Their term of office is one year, or until a new board is appointed. This board appoints a superintendent of public instruction whose term of office is four years, unless sooner removed by the board. It also has authority to employ teachers and determine their salaries, to prescribe the courses of study and the books to be used in the schools, and to make all needful regulations for the management of the same. The studies prescribed for the primary schools are spelling, definition of common words, read

writing, geography, the primary rules of arithmetic, drawing, and music. The studies for the male grammar schools are spelling, etymology, reading, writing, composition, grammar, geography, history of the United States, history of Maryland, natural philosophy, arithmetic, algebra, drawing, music, and single-entry bookkeeping. For the female grammar schools the same studies are prescribed, except algebra and book-keeping.

BALTIMORE. The first attempt to provide the means of education for the lower classes in this city was the establishment, in 1820, of a school on the Lancasterian system. In 1825, an act was passed by the legislature, which authorized the establishment of public schools in Balti-ing, more, and empowered the corporate authorities to levy a tax for their support. In 1828, a board of six school commissioners was organized; and, the next year, three schools were opened, and 269 pupils enrolled. The first school-house was erected in 1830, hired buildings having previously been used. In 1839, the number of pupils enrolled had increased to 1,126; and the mayor and city council requested the commissioners to establish a high school. The request was promptly complied with, and the school opened the same year. This had the effect not only to raise the grade, but to increase the efficiency, of the common schools; for, the next year (1840), there were nine schools in operation, with 1,834 pupils. Since that time the growth of the system has been rapid. In 1874, there were 122 schools, and the number of pupils enrolled was 29,108, of whom there were 23,362 in average attendance. The first superintendent of public instruction was Rev. J. N. McJilton, who served for about twenty years, acting, from 1849 to 1866, as treasurer of the board as well as superintendent of the schools. He was succeeded, Feb. 1., 1868, by William R. Creery; and after his death, May 1., 1875, the present incumbent, Prof. Henry E. Shepherd, was elected to the position. School Statistics. For the year ending Sept. 30., 1875, the following statistics were reported:

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Examination and Qualification of Teachers. -Applicants for the situation of teachers in the public schools must pass a written examination before the committee on examinations of the board. The regular time for such examinations is the second Saturday in November and May of each year; and a certificate is given to each successful candidate, showing the result and the grade. The following are the studies for each position and grade:

I. For any situation in the city college or for principal of a female high school, the studies required to be taught.

II. For first assistants of a female high school, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, natural philosophy, chemistry, and moral philosophy.

III. For any other situation in a female high school, the studies which the candidate would be required to teach if appointed.

IV. For principal and first assistant of a male grammar school, arithmetic, algebra, etymology, geography, grammar, history, orthography, natural philosophy, and music.

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V. For principal and first assistant of a female grammar school, grammar, modern geography, history, etymology, orthography, arithmetic, and music. VI. For principal of a primary school, grammar, modern geography, arithmetic, history of the United States, orthography, and music.

VII. For lower assistants in a grammar or primary school, grammar, arithmetic, orthography, modern geography, and music.

In addition to these, all teachers must pass an examination in geometry and physiology before receiving a certicate of any grade.

Two-thirds of the questions in each branch must be answered in order to pass the candidate for any

grade.

No person is eligible to any position as teacher in any of the schools under the following ages: Professor in city college or principal of a

male grammar school.
First assistant in male grammar school..
Principal of female grammar school....
Principal of a primary school..

First assistant in female grammar school.
Assistant in female high school.
Second assistant in grammar or primary
school.

.21 years.

19 years. 20 years.

20

years. 18 years. .18 years.

..17 years. Industrial Education.-Voluntary instruction in the domestic and industrial branches of female education is given by the teachers in several of the grammar and primary schools. This was commenced at the request of the president of the school board, and embraces sewing, knitting, embroidery, and some other useful branches, one afternoon of each week being set apart for the instruction. The results have been highly approved, as affording an accomplishment of great practical value both in the home-circle and as a means of support.

Training of Teachers. The normal class, established Sept. 12., 1874, is designed to afford to newly appointed teachers of the city schools instruction in the theory and practice of teaching. It is under the supervision of the superintendent of public instruction. The State Normal School is located at Baltimore, besides which there is a normal school for the instruction of colored teachers. (See MARYLAND.)

BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE. This institution is under the care of the commissioners of public schools of Baltimore, and forms a part of the common school system of that city. It was originally established as the Central High School, with 46 pupils; but has graduated more than 500 students. The number on the roll Oct. 31., 1874, was 400, and the number of instructors was 11. Candidates for admission must pass a satisfactory examination in spelling, writing, grammar, geography, arithmetic, and algebra through simple equations. The curriculum embraces the English, French, German, and Latin languages (Greek optional), history, writing, and book-keeping, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytical geometry, calculus, physiology, chemistry, physical geography, natural philosophy, astronomy, psychology, logic, rhetoric, moral philosophy, political economy, and the constitution of the United States. The full course is four years. Boys fourteen years of age, whether pupils of the public schools or not, may be admitted on passing the required examination.

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BALTIMORE FEMALE COLLEGE, at Baltimore, Md., was founded in 1849, and was under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church from that date to 1868, when, by an act of the legislature, the Board of Trustees became a permanent corporation; and the Board is now composed of Methodists, Episcopalians, and Presbyterians. The number of students in the institution is (1876) about 100; Nathan C. Brooks, LL. D., has been the president of the College since its foundation. It has an endowment of $2,500 from the State of Maryland, but tuition fees constitute its chief support. While its course of higher education has been general, it has trained and sent forth 157 teachers, most of whom are occupying positions of responsibility in academies, high schools, and colleges.

BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians distinguished by the denial of baptism to infants, and by the restriction of that rite to those who therein profess personal faith and regeneration. They baptize by immersion only, and in the form of their church-government are congregational. In England, they are known as General and Particular, the former, which is by a few years the older denomination in that country, being Arminian, and the latter, which composes the far greater part of the denomination, being Calvinistic, in theology. They are likewise distinguished as Close-Communion and Open - Communion, the larger part of the denomination in England being Open-Communion. Baptists came to this country with the first settlements. In Rhode Island, their churches are as old as the colony; and before the close of the seventeenth century they had gathered churches in Boston, in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and at Charleston. Their rapid growth commenced about the middle of the eighteenth century. At the time of the Revolution, they are supposed to have had about 25,000 communicants. În 1876, they have more than 1,800,000. The great body are known by the appellation Baptists; lesser bodies are known as Free-Will, or lately as Free, Seventh-Day, Six Principles, and Old School. All these last constitute a fraction only of those who bear the generic name. The Disciples, or Campbellites, followers of Alexander Campbell, are a large secession, distinguished by peculiar theological views. In this country, the Baptists, meaning by this the chief denomination so called, are Close-Communion; that is, believing that no baptism is regular which is not the baptism of a believer and by immersion, and that a regular baptism is to preach participation in the Lord's Supper, they restrict their communion to the members of their own churches.

Several of the ministers, in the rise of the Baptist denomination in England, were univer sity graduates; but that source hopelessly failing with the Restoration, the Baptists are found, with other denominations, taking measures for the education of a ministry by means strictly their

BAPTISTS

own. The first resort was to private tuition, and Mr. John Tombes, at one time preacher in the Temple church, London,, was the teacher of young ministers. In 1675 and in 1689, concerted action was taken in the denomination in this direction. Edward Jewell of Bristol, dying about 1686, left a legacy which provided for instruction to candidates for the ministry, and became after the lapse of thirty years the foundation of a school, known still later as the Bristol College. With the growth of the denomination several other colleges arose, which according to the "Baptist Hand-Book for 1876" (London. 1876) were located in the following places: Rawdon near Leeds (founded at Horton, 1804, removed to Rawdon 1859); Pontypool, (founded at Abergavenny, 1807, removed to Pontypool, 1836); Regents Park, London (founded 1810; removed to Regents Park, 1856); Haverfordwest (founded 1839); Chilwell, near Nottingham (founded 1797, removed to Chilwell, 1861); Pastor's College, Metropolitan Tabernacle, London, (founded 1861); Llangollen, or North Wales (founded 1862); Manchester Baptist Theological Institution (founded 1866); The East End Training Institute for Home and Foreign Missions, London (founded 1873). All these colleges are understood to be for the education of ministers only.

In the American colonies, the denomination had not grown to sufficient magnitude in the seventeenth century to undertake any denominational work in education. In the earlier years of the eighteenth century, appear their first graduates from American colleges. Down to and including 1776, the number of their collegebred ministers, as far as can now be ascertained, was 19, of whom, however, two were not graduates. They had an equal or larger number whose education was not greatly inferior to that of a college course.

Notices of attempts towards the education of their ministry under denominational auspices, appear early in the history of the Philadelphia Association, the benefactions to Harvard College of Mr. Hollis, a London Baptist, having been a stimulus in that direction. Similar measures were taken in 1755 in the Charleston Association. In 1756. was opened the Academy at Hopewell, N. J., which was the cradle of Rhode Island College, now Brown University, organized in 1764. Academies had been opened and sustained for many years by individual teachers, in the half century following the establishment of Brown University, but no general movement in the direction of education occurred till about the time of the organization of the denomination for the work of missions. In this organization education was embraced. To this date, 1812-20, must be referred efforts to establish theological schools in Philadelphia and New York City, at Waterville, Maine, and at Hamilton, N. Y., and the rise of several societies to give pecuniary aid to young men preparing for the ininistry. The Philadelphia movement became merged in the founding of Columbian College, Washington, D.

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C.; the New York movement in the rise of the institution at Hamilton, now known as Madison University, but having in alliance with it a theological seminary; and the Waterville movement in the establishment of the college, now known as Colt University. With the close of that decade commenced the rapid establishment of colleges and universities under the auspices of the denominations in all parts of the country. Georgetown College, Ky., bears the date of 1829; Denison University, Ohio, 1831; Shurtleff College. Ill., 1832; Wake Forest College, N. C., 1834; Franklin College, Ind., 1834; Mercer University, Ga., 1837; Richmond College, Va., 1840; Howard College,, Ala., 1843; Baylor University, Texas, 1845; University at Lewisburg, Pa., 1847; William Jewell College, Mo., 1849; University of Rochester, N. Y., 1850; Mississippi College, 1850; Furman University, S. C., 1851; Mossy Creek College, Tenn., 1853; Central University, Pella, Iowa, 1853; Kalamazoo College, Mich., 1855; Bethel College, Ky., 1856; McMinnville College, Oregon, 1858; University of Chicago, Ill., 1859; Waco University, Texas, 1861; Vassar College, N. Y., 1861; University of Des Moines, Iowa, 1865; La Grange College, Mo., 1866; Concord College, New Liberty, Ky., 1866; Louisiana Baptist College, Mo., 1869; California College, 1871; Monongahela College, Pa., 1871; Southwestern University, Tenn., 1874. Of the later Colleges, those which have risen to chief reputation and strength, are in the North, Rochester, Madison and Denison, and in the South, Richmond. Vassar, the chief college in the United States for young women, should be ranked with Baptist institutions only from the fact, that the founder, an adherent of the denomination, made the majority of its trustees Baptists, charging them, however, to make it Christian and unsectarian, which they have done. Several of the colleges in the above list are very weak, and some hold the title doubtfully. According to the Baptist Year-book of 1876, the total amount of property held by the Baptist colleges is $8,045,146. This must be accepted as a proximate statement only, and is in part probably exaggerated. Brown University has a very valuable library of 45,000 volumes, several have libraries from 9,000 to 12,000 volumes; Brown University has a library fund of about $27,000, and the University of Rochester of $25,000. The total number of students in 1875-76 was 4,985, of whom 1,092 were females. These numbers, however, are of uncertain significance, because in some cases professional, and in many cases preparatory students are included. The curriculum of these colleges varies in character, but corresponds in that respects to the varying character of American colleges in general. Some of them take rank with colleges of the first class.

There are in the United States six Baptist theological seminaries of the highest grade, besides departments of theology in four or more colleges. Of these seminaries, Hamilton was founded in 1820, Newton in 1825, Rochester in

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1850, Southern in 1859, Chicago in 1867, and Crozer in 1868. In these seminaries, there were in 1875-76, 362 students, of whom probably about 300 were in the complete courses. These courses designed for graduates of colleges, are as high and as thorough as are known to theological seminaries.

There are likewise in the United States about forty academies, or institutions of that grade having other names, which are classed as under Baptist auspices, holding property of the estimated value of $2,000,000. Among these academies or other institutions, are those established under the protection and patronage of the American Baptist Home Mission Society, at Washington, Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia, Augusta, Nashville, and New Orleans, for the education of colored preachers and teachers. These institutions, though in their infancy, are performing a very important and successful service.

BARNARD

she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld, with whom she kept school for eleven years. Her most noted educational publications are Early Lessons for Children, Hymns in Prose, and the pieces which she contributed for Evenings at Home, published by her brother Dr. John Aikin. Her miscellaneous writings are numerous and varied. Mrs. Barbauld's books for children are among the best of their class, and have retained their popularity to the present time. Of these and their authoress, Dr. Knox remarks, “A poetess of our own times, remarkably distinguished by her taste and genius, has condescended to compose little books for the initiation of children in reading, and they seem admirably adapted to effect her laudable purpose." (See Liberal Education, by VICESIMUS KNOX.) Her writings were collected and edited by her niece, LrcY AIKIN (London, 1825). The same lady also published A Legacy for Young Ladies (Lond., 1826), compiled from Mrs. Barbauld's posthumous papers.

There have been three epochs of remarkable character in the educational work of American BARNARD, Frederick Augustus Porter, Baptists. The first, about the middle of the LL. D., was born at Sheffield, Mass., May 5., 18th century, had for its fruit the founding of 1809. He graduated at Yale College in 1828, Hopewell Academy and Brown University. The w was tutor there in 1830, and, subsequently, second, contemporaneous with the missionary teacher in the asylum for the deaf and dumb movement, and a part of the movement itself, at Hartford, and in that of New York. From was the prolific source of all the later colleges 1837 to 1848, he was professor of mathematics and seminaries. The third may be referred to and natural philosophy in the university of Alathe year 1870, when the first national educa-bama, and afterward of chemistry and natural tional convention of the Baptists was held under the auspices of the American Baptist Educational Commission, in Brooklyn, N. Y. A remarkable impulse was given by this convention to the founding and endowment of academies, for which purpose very large sums of money have since been raised. From that time, discussions of educational questions in the denomination have been marked by a great increase of breadth and force, the number of students in colleges and seminaries has been increased, and the raising of money for the endowment of institutions of learning has become a simultaneous and universal effort. A second educational convention was held in Philadelphia in 1872. In 1873, the American Baptist Educational Commission recommended the celebration of the Centennial of the nation by a common movement for the raising of funds for educational purposes, and that work is now proceeding.

The Baptists have had many distinguished educators, of whom, among the dead, Francis Wayland and Horatio B. Hackett may be named as pre-eminent. Of the chief benefactors of education, likewise among the dead, may be named, Edward Jewell, Thomas Hollis, Nicholas Brown, and Matthew Vassar. The list of living names would be large and honorable, were there sufficient space here for their enumeration.

BARBAULD, Anna Lætitia, an English writer, is particularly noted for her excellent reading lessons for young children. She was born in 1743, and died in 1825. Her father, the Rev. John Aikin, a Unitarian minister, was the principal of an academy in Lancashire, and took great pains in educating his children. In 1774,

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history till 1854, in which year he took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church. He was professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, and civil engineering in the university of Mississippi from 1854 to 1861, being also president of that institution from 1856 to 1858, and chancellor from 1858 to 1861, when he resigned. In 1860, he accompanied the expedition to observe the total eclipse of the sun in Labrador, and in the same year was elected president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was one of the original members of the National Academy of Sciences, incorporated in 1863. In 1863-4 he was in charge of chart-printing and lithography in the United States coast survey. He was elected president of Columbia College in 1864, which office he still (1876) holds, and in 1867 was one of the United States commissioners to the Paris exposition. Dr. Barnard is a member of various learned societies in the United States and Europe. During his residence in the South, he was actively engaged in promoting public education. He has been a contributor to the American Journal of Education and to SILLIMAN'S American Journal of Science and Arts. Among his publications, which have related chiefly to scientific and educational subjects, may be mentioned: Treatise on Arithmetic (1830); Analytic Grammar with Symbolic Illustrations (1836), which originated a system still used in the principal institutions for the deaf and dumb; Letters on College Government (1854), which attracted much attention; Report on Collegiate Education (1854); Art Culture (1854); History of the United States Coast Survey (1857); University Education

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