(1858); Undulatory Theory of Light (1862); Machinery and Processes of the Industrial Arts, etc. (1868); and Metric System of Weights and Measures (1871). BARNARD, Henry, LL. D., was born in Hartford, Ct., in 1811. He graduated from Yale College in 1830 with honor, his course having been marked by diligence and success in the classics and an unusual devotion to English literature. The next five years were devoted chiefly to the study of the law, joined to a diligent reading of the best English and classical authors. During this period, he taught school for a time, and toward its close spent some months in traveling through the western and southern portions of the United States. In 1835, he visited Europe, and traveled extensively on foot through England, Scotland and Switzerland, devoting his attention chiefly to the social condition of the people. On his return, after an absence of eighteen months, he was elected to the Connecticut legislature and represented his native city in that body for three years. There, various measures relating to the social, intellectual, and moral condition of the people engaged his attention, embracing the education of the deaf and dumb, and the blind, the care of the poor and insane, the reorganization of county prisons, the establishment of public libraries, and the completion of the geological survey of the state. His great work was the originating and securing the passage of an "Act to provide for the better supervision of common schools," which created a board of commissioners, whose duty it was to investigate the condition of the schools, and to endeavor to improve them by addresses, lectures, correspondence, the publication of a journal, and the recommendation of appropriate measures. Mr. Barnard was a member and secretary of this commission for four years, until it was abolished by adverse political action in 1842. In this capacity the duties of the board devolved chiefly on him; besides which he edited the Connecticut Common School Journal, and made four annual reports, which were marked by great ability and were highly commended. After fifteen months spent in a tour of the United States for the purpose of collecting materials for a History of public schools and other means of popular education in the United States, he was appointed commissioner of public schools in Rhode Island, an office which he had been instrumental in creating. In five years he organized an excellent system of popular education, and on retiring from office, in consequence of ill health, in 1849, he received the unanimous thanks of the state legislature. During this period he published several volumes relating to the schools of Rhode Island, and edited (1845-9) the Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. From 1850 to 1854, he was principal of the newly established Connecticut state normal school and state superintendent of common schools, again editing the Common School Journal. In 1855, he was chosen president of the American Association for the Advancement of Education, and, in 1856, he commenced the publication of the American Journal of Education. From 1857 to 1859, he was chancellor of the university of Wisconsin, and in 1865 6 president of St. John's College, Annapolis, Md. Upon the organization of the United States bureau of education, in 1867, for the establishment of which he had labored, he was appointed the first commissioner and held the office till 1870. Dr. Barnard has done much toward the improvement of school architecture, the organization of teachers' institutes, and the establishment of high and normal schools. Among his works are, School Architecture (1839), of which 130,000 copies were sold; Normal Schools (1851); National Education in Europe (1854), which was said by the Westminster Review to group under one view the varied experience of nearly all civilized countries"; Educational Biography (1857); Reformatory Education (1857); Object-Teaching (1860); and Military Schools (1862). BASEDOW, Johann Bernhard, the founder of the Philanthropin, was born in Hamburg, in 1723. His early youth was gloomy and unhappy, owing to the excessive severity of his father and the habitual melancholy of his mother. While still a boy, he ran away from his paternal home, and entered the service of a country physician in Holstein. Having returned to Hamburg, upon the urgent entreaties of his father, he entered the Johanneum, where he became noted among his school-mates for his foolish tricks. In 1741, he went to the gymnasium of Hamburg, where Reimarus, the famous author of the Wolfenbüttel Fragments, was among his teachers. While there, he had to support himself by giving private lessons and writing occasional poems; but a large portion of the money which he earned was spent in debauchery, and his own studies were conducted without system or perseverance. From 1744 to 1746, he studied theology and philosophy at the university of Leipsic. He was very irregular in attending the lectures; and the Wolffian philosophy, which at that time predominated, brought him, as he says himself, "into a state of half-way between Christianity and naturalism." In 1749, he was engaged by Herr von Quaalen, in Holstein, as private tutor for his children; and while in this position, worked out for his pupils a new method of studying languages, an account of which he has given in a Latin dissertation, entitled " De inusitata et optima honestioris juventutis erudiendæ methodo" (Kiel, 1752). Herr von Quaalen, who was much pleased with the results of Basedow's teaching, procured for him, in 1753, the chair of ethics and fine arts, and subsequently that of theology, at the Ritterakademie (Knights' Academy) at Soröe. On account of the unorthodox views expressed in his work On practical philosophy for all ranks, he was obliged, in 1761, to remove to the gymnasium of Altona. Here, two other heterodox publications, Philalethia and Methodical Instruction in both Natural and Biblical Religion, involved him in a severe controversy with several theologians, among others Senior Götze of Hamburg, and caused him and which, as Basedow promised, was to be free from his family to be excluded from the Communion. sectarian bias and to be carried on without a reIn 1767, he conceived a comprehensive plan for a sort to corporal punishment; gymnastic exercises radical reform of public education, and soon suc- were to be afforded and the work of learning was ceeded in securing the support of the Danish to be made " three times as short, and three minister Bernstorff, who relieved him from the times as easy as it usually is." The expectations duties of his position, and granted him a salary raised by Basedow's enthusiastic announcements of eight hundred thalers. In 1768 he pub- and promises were, however, not realized. As lished the Address to the Philanthropists and early as Dec., 1774, Basedow was obliged to Men of Property, upon Schools and Studies, transfer the supreme management of the instituand their Influence upon the Public Weal (Vor- tion to Campe, under whom the number of stellung an Menschenfreunde etc.) with the pupils rose to 50. For a short time, Basedow plan of an elementary work on human knowl- was again placed at the head of the institution; edge. He applied to many princes, governments, but, in 1778, he had finally to leave it. In 1784, ecclesiastical dignitaries, freemasons' lodges, and the periodical of the Philanthropin, entitled Pedother learned men and societies, to aid him in agogical Conversations (Die pädagogischen Unthe publication of the elementary work which he terhaltungen) was discontinued; and, from that proposed; and the success of these applications time, the institution declined rapidly, and was was so great, that, in 1771, contributions amount- soon entirely abandoned. The teachers, however, ing to more than $10,000 had been received. As were scattered through all parts of Germany, apthe first part of the proposed Elementarwerk, plying in various ways the principles of the Basedow published, in 1770, Methodenbuch (book founder. Basedow devoted the last years of his of methods), of which a second edition appeared life to writing theological and educational works. in 1771, and a third in 1773. The chapter on He died, July 25., 1790, at Magdeburg. His last Education of Princes, was omitted in the second words were, "I desire to be dissected for the edition of the work, and having been revised benefit of my fellow-men." Like Rousseau, with a care worthy of the subject," it was pub-Basedow gave a powerful impulse to the discuslished in 1771, as a separate work, under the title of Agathocrator. Prince Albert of Dessau sent the author, in return for a copy of this book, 100 thalers; and the emperor Joseph II., a medal with his portrait. At the same time, Basedow received from the ruling prince of Dessau, Leopold Frederic Francis, a call to Dessau, to carry out his plan of a large reformatory educational institution. Having, accordingly, removed to Dessau, he published there, in 1774, his long expected Elementarwerk, in 4 vols., illustrated with one hundred plates, mostly engraved by Chodowiecky. The object of this book is, as Basedow himself remarks, (1) Elementary instruction in the knowledge of world and things; (2) An original method, founded upon experience, of teaching children to read without weariness or loss of time; (3) Natural knowledge; (4) Knowledge of morals, the mind, and reasoning; (5) A thorough and impressive method of instruction in natural religion, with a perfectly impartial account of dogmatic articles of belief; and (6) A knowledge of social duties, of commerce, etc." This work was translated into Latin by Mangelsdorf, and into French by Huber. The foundation of the educational institution which became famous in history as the Philanthropin, was laid in Dessau, Dec. 27., 1774. The prince of Dessau gave the building, a garden, and $12,000. The object of the institution was to supply a model school in which the principles of the Elementarwerk could be applied to practical methods. Poor pupils were received at reduced rates, under the name of famulants. In 1775, the number of boarders was nine, and of famulants six. Many | of the prominent scholars and educators of the time, as Kant, Oberlin, Nicolai, and Zollicoffer, took a profound interest in this novel institution, sion of new educational theories; and he resembled Rousseau, too, in being entirely unfitted for a practical educator. There was much in his method of teaching that appeared strange, eccentric, and even farcical; but, on the other hand, those who most severely criticise his defects, readily acknowledge that his life-long labors in behalf of education were not in vain. His purpose was, without doubt, honest and unselfish. Like Rousseau, he labored ardently, and with considerable success, for the removal of many unnatural restraints, which, at that time, were so common. Physical education, according to his system, was attended to in a manner quite original at that time; and the favorite principle of Basedow that the scholars should learn with love, and not with repugnance, had a most beneficent influence upon the practical methods of other educational institutions. See RAUMER, Geschichte der Pädagogik, vol. II. (translated in BARNARD'S German Educational Reformers); MAX MÜLLER (grandson of Basedow) in Allge meine Deutsche Biographie, art. Basedow; MEYER, Character und Schriften Basedow's (2 vols., Hamburg, 1791–1792); QUICK, Educational Reformers (London, 1868, and Cincinnati, 1874). BATES COLLEGE, at Lewiston, Me., was established in 1863, by the Free Baptists, and named in honor of Benjamin E. Bates of Boston, who contributed $200,000 to its endowment. It has handsome grounds, three fine college buildings, and a president's residence. The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about $200,000. In 1874, it had a corps of 8 instructors, and 100 students in the different college classes, of whom 3 were females. Nine different schools and academies act as preparatory schools for this college. There is here an endowed schol arship for a lady student, supposed to be the first instance of such an appropriation in any of the colleges of this country. There are ten state scholarships, giving tuition to ten students, to be selected by the governor; and in awarding these scholarships, preference is required to be given to the children of those who have fallen in defense of their country, and always to those who are indigent and meritorious. There is a professorship of mental and moral philosophy, named after Asa Reddington, LL. D., of Lewiston, who gave a large amount toward its endowment. The Cobb professorship of logic and Christian evidence was named in honor of J. L. H. Cobb, of Lewiston, who contributed the chief portion of the funds for its endowment. The various libraries, college, theological, and societies', contain about 9,000 volumes. The president of the institution is (1876) Rev. O. B. Cheney, D. D. The annual tuition fee is $36. BAVARIA. See GERMANY. BAYLOR UNIVERSITY, at Independence, Tex., was founded in 1845 by the Baptists. It had, in 1874, a corps of 5 instructors, 2 endowed professorships, 81 students, and a library of about 3,000 volumes. It has a theological as well as a collegiate department. The value of its grounds, buildings, etc. is estimated at $35,000; its endowment is about $16,000. Rev. Wm. C. Crane, D. D., LL. D., is (1876) the president. The annual tuition fee is from $30 to $60. BEACH GROVE COLLEGE, at Beach Grove, Tenn., was founded in 1868. It had, in 1874, a corps of 5 instructors, and 106 students in its preparatory, and 18 in its collegiate depart ment. Its grounds, college buildings, and apparatus are valued at $30,000. M. Parker, A. M., is (1876) the president. It is non-sectarian. BÉBIAN, Roch Ambroise Auguste, a noted teacher of deaf-mutes, was born on the island of Guadeloupe, in 1789, and died there in 1834. He was godson of the abbé Sicard, so celebrated for his efforts in behalf of the instruction of deaf-mutes, and under him was prepared for the task which he afterwards assumed. After the publication in 1817, of his Essai sur les sourds-muets et sur le langage naturel, he was appointed a professor at the royal institution; but the jealousy and opposition excited toward him by his zeal for innovation and reform, compelled him to resign, in 1825, after which he returned to Guadeloupe. His Eloge historique de l'abbé de l'Epée obtained a prize from the academy. His other important publications are, Mimographie, ou Essai d'écriture mimique (1822), and Manuel d'enseignement pratique (1827). BEDE, or Beda, styled the venerable Bede, a celebrated Saxon ecclesiastic and scholar, and the earliest English historian, was born in Durham, England, about 677, and died in 735. He possessed an excellent character, was humble, diligent, and truly pious; and rose to great eminence in the church through his learning and literary ability. His biography, written by his pupil Cuthbert, says of him, that having been brought by his relations, in his seventh year, to the abbot Benedict Biscop, in Wearmouth, he devoted all his energies to the study of the Scriptures, and occupied his spare time in learning, teaching, and writing. He spent his entire life in the monastery of Wearmouth in study and teaching, and acquired a wide reputation both as an instructor and a scholar. Many students came from afar to hear him; and others, who could not come in person, requested of him, by letter, explanations of difficult biblical passages. Of his method of teaching, nothing is recorded; but it consisted, without doubt, of lectures to the students. There is no doubt that he possessed an attractive delivery, and the excellence of his diction may be seen from his literary works. His studies were, by no means, confined to theology, but extended to every science, as we see from his work on orthography and his works De arte metrica, Liber de schematis et tropis sacræ scripturae, and De natura rerum, the latter treating of physics, astronomy, and geography. The greatest of his works, the Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, written in Latin (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum), was translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, and is still the best authority for the period on which it treats. Bede's complete works, as far as extant, have been published by Dr. GILES (London, 1843—1844). A new English translation appeared in 1871.-See also WRIGHT, Biographia Britannica Literaria, vol. 1. (London, 1842). BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe, has an area of 11,373 sq. m., and a population, in 1873, of 5,253,821. Almost the entire population belongs nominally to the Roman Catholic Church. The number of Protestants is variously estimated at from 10,000 to 26,000; that of the Jews at 2000. The influence of the Catholic Church on legislation is greater than in any other country of Europe, and the Catholic party, which aims at shaping the legislative functions of the national assembly in accordance with the heads of the Church, has controlled the destinies of the nation during the greater part of the time which has elapsed since the establishment of Belgian independence. The Belgians are almost equally divided into two nationalities, the Flemish, a branch of the German race, and the Walloon, an offshoot of the French. The Flemings are estimated at about 49,8 per cent of the population, and prevail in the provinces of East Flanders (92.4 per cent of the total population), Antwerp (92,4 p. c.), Limburg (88,8 p. c.), West Flanders (88,0 p. c.), and Brabant (56,1 p. c.), while the Walloons have a majority in the provinces of Liege (89.6 p. c.), Hainault (95.8 p. c.), Namur (99.I p. c.), and Luxemburg 84.7 p. c.). The country constituting the present kingdom of Belgium formed part of the great Carlovingian empire, after the dissolution of which, the Scheldt formed the boundary between France and Germany. Subsequently it was united with Burgundy, conjointly with which it was inherited by the kings of Spain. The peace of Utrecht (1713) gave it to Austria, from which, in 1794, it was in every large city. In 1850, this class of schools was changed into secondary schools. The schools are managed by the communal council, and the expenses required for their support are included in the local taxes. The teachers are chosen by the communal council from among candidates who have for at least two years pursued the studies of a normal school. They must receive a certificate of qualification from a board consisting of a lay and a clerical member, the former appointed by the state and the latter by the ecclesiastical authorities. The communal council may suspend the teacher for three months, the provincial inspector may, on consultation with the communal council, dismiss him. The inspec tion of primary schools is exercised both by the state government and the ecclesiastical authorities. The king appoints a cantonal inspector for each canton, and a provincial inspector for each of the nine provinces. The cantonal inspector is appointed for the term of three years. He must visit each school of his district at least conquered by the French. On Napoleon's abdication in 1814, it was united with Holland, with which it remained until 1830, when a successful revolution established its independence. The first schools after the introduction of Christianity were connected with convents and collegiate churches, and some of them, as the schools of Liege, Gemblours, Dornick, Ghent, etc., achieved a high reputation. Elementary schools were established in many places by the monastic order of the Hieronymites or Hieronymians. During the rule of the Dukes of Burgundy, the famous university of Louvain was founded (in 1426), which soon occupied a front rank among the high schools of Europe, and at one time was attended by 6000 students. During the Dutch rule, a thorough system of inspection, reports, and full publicity, was instituted; a normal school was established at Liege in 1817, and in 1822 all persons were forbidden to exercise the functions of a school-master in the higher branches of public schools who were not authorized by a central board of examination. On the other hand, how-twice a year, and report to the provincial inspectever, the efforts of the Dutch government to repress the use of the French language and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, produced | an intense and general dissatisfaction, and became one of the primary causes of the revolution of 1830, and the permanent separation of Belgium from Holland. The overthrow of the hate Dutch rule was naturally followed by the abolition of the educational laws introduced by the Dutch government. In the place of the strict control of the entire educational system by the state, the most absolute freedom of instruction was now introduced. The clergy founded a number of schools, which remained under the exclusive control of the church, while the Liberal party supported, in opposition to the church schools, the public school system. In 1836, a compromise between church and state was arrived at. The government gave to the clergy an influence upon the state schools, while the church subjected all its schools which received support from the commune, the government, or public funds, to the inspection of the state. Since 1865, the educational question has been the subject of a very animated controversy between the Liberal and the Catholic parties. The Liberals founded an association called Ligue de l'enseignement, which aimed at emancipating the state schools from the influence of the church. Primary instruction is based on the law of Sept. 23., 1842. This law provides that every commune (the smallest territorial and civil subdivision of the state) must have at least one public elementary school, unless the instruction of all the children is sufficiently provided for to the satisfaction of the government, in private, endowed, or denominational schools. The elementary school must be free to the poor, and may be made free to all by vote of the communal council. The primary school must give instruction in religion and morals, in writing, in the mother-tongue of the children (French or Flemish), and in arithmetic. The law provides for a superior elementary school or. The latter must visit each school at least once a year, and report to the minister of the interior. All the provincial inspectors assemble once a year as a central commission, under the presidency of the minister of the interior. The bishops also appoint cantonal and diocesan inspectors, and must once a year report to the minister of the interior on the state of moral and religious instruction. In the Protestant and Jewish schools a delegate of the consistory superintends the religious instruction. The government annually publishes a list of text-books that may be used. From this list each teacher can make his selection. There is no special ministry of public instruction, but all educational matters are assigned to the minister of the interior, with a separate bureau. The state has established two normal schools for primary teachers, a Flemish school at Lierre, and a Walloon school at Nivelles. There are, besides, seven normal departments annexed to higher primary schools, and seven episcopal normal schools, which have been placed by the bishops under government supervision. The courses of instruction in the state normal schools are for three years, and in the episcopal schools for four. The pupils are usually required to board and lodge upon the school premises. Teachers' conferences, generally occupying only one day, and never more than three, are held quarterly during vacations, and conducted by the provincial and cantonal inspectors. Secondary instruction was re-organized in 1850. The secondary schools are of two grades. The higher grade, known as athenæums, includes two sections, one for classical instruction which corresponds to the German gymnasium, and is for six years, and one for industrial instruction, corresponding to the realschool of Germany, and being for four years. The superintendence of secondary instruction belongs to a general inspector and two special inspectors. The law of 1850 provides for a council of secondary instruction (conseil de perfectionnement), consisting of at least 8 and not more than 10 members. The latter class has increased since 1851 by 1,098, the former only by 624. The schools for adults numbered 199,957 pupils, 9,219 more than in 1848, being 3.98 per cent of the population. The aggregate expenditures made for primary instruction, in 1874, were as follows: national government, 6,643,415 francs; provinces 1,584,010 fr.; communes 5,863,561 fr.; total 14,090,986 fr. To what extent illiteracy still prevails may be inferred from the fact that, in 1874, of 43,311 men who were drafted for the militia, 8,727 could neither read nor write, 1,976 could only read, 15,726 could read and write, 16,228 had a higher education, and of 654 the degree of instruction was unknown. - See BARNARD, National Education, part п., p. 369 to 401; JUSTE, Histoire de l'instruction publique en Belgique (1840); Rapports triennaux, publiés par le gouvernement sur l'enseignement des trois degrés; Annuaire statistique de la Belgique. BELL, Andrew, D. D., a distinguished educationist, the author of the system of mutual or monitorial instruction sometimes called the Madras system, was born at St. Andrews, Scotland, in 1753, and died at Cheltenham, England, in 1832. He was educated at the University of St. Andrews, went to America, and after a short residence there, returned and took orders in the Episcopal Church. In 1787, he embarked for India. and on his arrival at Madras, was appointed chaplain to the English garrison, and also superintendent of the school then recently established for the education of the orphan children of British soldiers. Finding great difficulty in obtaining the assistance of competent teachers in this arduous work, he resorted to the expedient of conducting the school by means of the pupils themselves. This method was partly suggested to his mind by his seeing, on one of his morning rides, the children of a Malabar school sitting on the ground and writing with their fingers in sand. He immediately introduced this method of teaching the alphabet into his school, and finding the ushers averse to the innovation, gave the A-B-C class to a boy whom he selected as especially fitted for the task. This boy, whose name was John Frisken, and who was probably the first monitor in English education, was the son of a soldier, and then about eight years old. The success of this lad induced Dr. Bell to extend the experiment. He appointed other boys to teach the lower classes; and soon afterwards applied his system of monitors to the whole school (1791). This was continued under Of the four universities of Belgium, the free his superintendence till his return to Europe, in Catholic University of Louvain had, in 1872, 1796. (See MONITORIAL SYSTEM.) After his the largest number of students (901); the free arrival in England, he drew up a full report of (liberal) University of Brussels had 583; the his school, which was published in London, in State University at Liege 436, and the State 1797, under the title of An Experiment in University of Ghent 210; the Royal Academy Education, made at the Male Asylum, Madras ; of Fine Arts at Antwerp, 1576 students. The suggesting a System by which a School or Conservatory of Music at Brussels was attended Family may teach itself under the superintendence by 675 pupils, that of Liege by 789. The number of the Master or Parent. This pamphlet atof teachers in the primary schools, in 1874, was tracted little attention, until, through the efforts 10,629, of whom 7,032 were laymen, and 3,597 | of Joseph Lancaster, the monitorial system of members of religious orders and clerics. The instruction invented by him was introduced into The salaries of primary teachers were fixed by a law of 1863 as follows: (1) in schools with more than 100 scholars, minimum salary 1,050 francs; (2) in schools with from 60 to 100 scholars, 950 francs; (3) in schools with less than 60 scholars, 850 francs. The chief town of every province has a special savings-bank for teachers (caisse de prévoyance), into which every teacher is required annually to pay a certain fixed amount from his salary, and which also receives contributions from the provinces, the state, and private individuals. Every teacher who is sixty years old and has served thirty years is entitled to a life pension. The full pension of teachers is also paid to their widows and to their orphans till the latter have reached their 16th year. |